by Frank McLynn
151. For a full account of these events see Alan Thompson, The Ware Mutiny: Order Restored or Revolution Defeated? (1996).
152. Brailsford, Levellers, p. 297.
153. Ibid., p. 300.
154. Hopper, ‘Black Tom’, p. 99.
7 England’s Revolution Manqué
1. Keith Lindley, The English Civil War and Revolution (1998), p. 167.
2. Stephen Bull and Mike Sead, Bloody Preston: The Battle of Preston, 1648 (Lancaster, 1998), pp. 100–1.
3. W. Haller and G. Davies, The Leveller Tracts, 1647–53 (NY, 1944), pp. 97–101.
4. A. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, 1625–60 (Oxford, 2002), p. 397.
5. Brailsford, Levellers, p. 241.
6. Norah Carlin, ‘The Leveller Organisation in London’, Historical Journal, 27 (1984), pp. 955–60; Brailsford, Levellers, p. 328.
7. Brailsford, Levellers, p. 326, Gregg, Freeborn John, pp. 244–5.
8. Haller and Davies, eds, Leveller Tracts, pp. 147–55; Wolfe, Leveller Manifestos, pp. 279–90; Morton, Freedom in Arms, pp. 181–94; Aylmer, Levellers in the English Revolution, pp. 131–8.
9. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, p. 424.
10. Gregg, Freeborn John, pp. 203–5, 259; Brailsford, Levellers, pp. 366–7, 457–8.
11. Jones, Rainsborowe, p. 123.
12. Ibid.
13. The sequence of events can be followed in detail in David Underdown, Pride’s Purge: Politics in the Puritan Revolution (Oxford, 1971).
14. Woolrych, Britain in Revolution, p. 428.
15. Wolfe, Leveller Manifestos, pp. 291–310; Aylmer, Levellers in the English Revolution, pp. 139–41.
16. Gardiner, ed., Constitutional Documents.
17. There is a huge literature on the trial and execution of Charles I. See Clive Holmes, Why Was Charles I Executed? (2006); Graham Edwards, The Last Days of Charles I (Stroud, 1999); C. V. Wedgwood, The Trial of Charles I (1964). Amazingly, new light has been shed on all of this by Sean Kelsey, ‘The Trial of Charles I’, EHR, 118 (2003), pp. 583–616. For the regicides see Geoffrey Robertson, The Tyrannicide Brief: The Men who Sent Charles I to the Scaffold (2005); Jason Peachey, ed., The Regicides and the Execution of Charles I (Basingstoke, 2001).
18. James Alsop, ‘A High Road to Radicalism? Gerrard Winstanley’s Youth’, Seventeenth Century, 9 (1994), pp. 11–24; James Alsop, ‘Gerrard Winstanley: What Do We Know of His Life?’ in Andrew Bradstock, ed., Winstanley and the Diggers, 1649–1999 (2000), pp. 19–36.
19. Mark Kishlansky, A Monarchy Transformed: Britain, 1603–1714 (1996), p. 196.
20. Olivier Lustand, Winstanley: socialisme et christianisme sous Cromwell (Paris, 1976), pp. 39–42.
21. Gerrard Winstanley, The Law of Freedom (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 128, 216, 232.
22. Richardson and Ridden, Freedom and the English Revolution, pp. 157–8; Brailsford, Levellers, pp. 666–9.
23. Thomas N. Corns, Anne Hughes and David Loewenstein, eds, The Complete Works of Gerrard Winstanley, 2 vols (Oxford, 2009) – hereinafter Winstanley, CW – i, pp. 51–65.
24. Andrew Bradstock, Faith in the Revolution: The Political Theologies of Munster and Winstanley (1976). For the influential passage in the Acts of the Apostles, see Acts 2: 42–7.
25. ‘The law in its majestic equality forbids the rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the strets, and to steal bread.’ Anatole France, Le Lys rouge.
26. Winstanley, CW, ii, pp. 291–2.
27. Ibid., p. 13.
28. Ibid., pp. 10, 224, 302.
29. Wallace Stevens, Esthétique du mal (poem): ‘Revolution is the affair of logical lunatics.’
30. Quoted in John Gurney, Brave Community: The Digger Movement in the Revolution (Manchester, 2007), p. 180; cf. also Winstanley, CW, i, p. 523.
31. Steve Hindle, ‘Dearth and the English Revolution: The Harvest Crisis of 1647–50,’ Economic History Review, 61 (2008), pp. 1–21 (at pp. 4–5).
32. Christopher Hill, ‘Winstanley and Freedom’, in Richardson and Ridden, eds, Freedom and the English Revolution, pp. 151–68; Keith Thomas, ‘Another Digger Broadside’, PP 42 (1969), pp. 57–68 (at p. 58).
33. J. Thirk, ed., The Agrarian History of England and Wales (Cambridge 1967), iv, pp. 95–7, 107–8, 224–5, 409–12, 445–6.
34. Winstanley, CW, i, p. 67.
35. Winstanley, CW, i, pp. 422–600 (esp. pp. 508–17).
36. George Juretic, ‘Digger No Millenarian: The Revolutionising of Gerrard Winstanley’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 36 (1975), pp. 263–80; C. Robert Cole and Michael Moody, eds, The Dissenting Tradition (Athens, Ohio, 1975), pp. 191–225; Christopher Hill, ‘The Religion of Gerrard Winstanley’, PP Supplement 5 (1978), pp. 1–56; see also PP 89 (1980), pp. 147–51.
37. For the offending passages see Winstanley, CW, ii, pp. 312–13, 326–9. For the proto-feminism see CW, ii, pp. 188, 378.
38. Frank McLynn, C. G. Jung: A Biography (1996), pp. 409–12.
39. J. C. Davis, Utopia and the Ideal Society (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 183–4; Christopher Hill, Liberty Against the Law: Some Seventeenth-Century Controversies (1996), pp. 285–6, 289, 295.
40. Winstanley, CW, ii, p. 130.
41. For the Norman yoke see Winstanley, CW, ii, pp. 65–78; cf. also Hill, ‘The Norman Yoke’, in Hill, Puritanism and Revolution, pp. 58–125. Hill points out that the signatories of the Digger manifestos all bore Saxon names. Ibid., p. 69.
42. Gurney, Brave Community, p. 13.
43. Winstanley, CW, ii, pp. 57–64.
44. To the City of London and the Army (CW, ii, pp. 79–106); to the Commons (ibid., ii, pp. 65–78); to Fairfax (ibid., ii, pp. 32–58).
45. Charles Firth, ed., The Clarke Papers, 4 vols (1901), ii, pp. 210–11. For Everard see Petegorsky, Left-Wing Democracy, p. 167; Ariel Hessayon, ‘William Everard’, ODNB (2004), 17, pp. 789–90.
46. Brailsford, Levellers, pp. 657–8.
47. Thomas, ‘Another Digger Broadside’, pp. 58–9.
48. Hill, World Turned Upside Down, pp. 91–9; Brian Manning, The Far Left in the English Revolution, 1640–1660 (1999), pp. 33, 36, 52, 78.
49. Winstanley, CW, ii, pp. 108–9, 113–19, 283, 295.
50. Joan Thirsk, ‘Agrarian Problems and the English Revolution’, in R. C. Richardson, ed., Town and Countryside in the English Revolution (Manchester, 1992), pp. 169–97.
51. Gurney, Brave Community, p. 123.
52. Winstanley, CW, ii, pp. 235–42.
53. Brailsford, Levellers, p. 525.
54. For a detailed narrative see Brian Manning, 1649: The Crisis of the English Revolution (1992).
55. François Guizot, History of Oliver Cromwell and the English Commonwealth: From the Execution of Charles I to the Death of Cromwell (1854), pp. 61–4.
56. Haller and Davies, Leveller Tracts, pp. 156–70; Aylmer, Levellers in the English Revolution, pp. 142–8; Gregg, Freeborn John, pp. 266–9; Brailsford, Levellers, p. 472.
57. Aylmer, Levellers in the English Revolution, p. 149.
58. Brailsford, Levellers, p. 481.
59. Ibid., p. 317.
60. Ian Gentles, ‘Katherine Chidley’, ODNB (2004), 11, pp. 410–12 and, also by Gentles and at greater length, ‘London Levellers and the English Revolution: The Chidleys and Their Circle’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 29 (1978), pp. 281–309; cf. also George Ballard, Memoirs of British Ladies (1752).
61. Aylmer, Levellers in the English Revolution, pp. 150–8, Morton, Freedom in Arms, pp. 245–9; Haller and Davies, eds, Leveller Tracts, pp. 276–84; McMichael and Taft, eds, Writings of William Walwyn, pp. 334–43.
62. McMichael and Taft, eds, Writings of William Walwyn, pp. 383–432; Haller and Davies, eds, Leveller Tracts, pp. 350–98.
63. Aylmer, Levellers in the English Revolution, pp. 159–68; McMichael and Taft, eds, Writings of William Walwyn, pp. 344–7; Haller and Davies, eds, Leveller Tracts, pp. 31–328; Morton, Freedom in Arms, pp. 397–410.
64. B
railsford, Levellers, p. 515. For a lengthier examination of this theme see Brian Manning, Aristocrats, Plebeians and Revolution in England, 1640–1660 (1996).
65. Brailsford, Levellers.
66. Keith Lindley, The English Civil War and Revolution: A Sourcebook (1998), pp. 173–4.
67. Precisely who were Cromwell’s political commissars and who were the army officers who lost confidence in him in 1645–9 is a ticklish question. Exhaustive research would be needed in, e.g., A. Woolrych, Soldiers, Writers and Statesmen in the English Revolution (Cambridge, 1998), and C. H. Firth and G. Davies, The Regimental History of Cromwell’s Army, 2 vols (1940). It is quite clear that some of the rebels were minor gentry, see G. Aylmer, ‘Gentlemen Levellers’, PP 49 (1970), pp. 120–5.
68. Manning, 1649, pp. 173–7.
69. Firth, ed., Clarke Papers, i, p. 419.
70. Paul H. Hardacre, ‘Eyre, William fl. 1634–1675’, ODNB (2004), 18, p. 860. See also William Eyre, The Serious Representations of William Eyre (1649).
71. Michael T. Vann, ‘Quakerism and the Social Structure in the Interregnum’, PP 43 (1969), pp. 71–91; Brailsford, Levellers, pp. 632, 637–40.
72. Gregg, Freeborn John, pp. 270–1, 294–301; Brailsford, Levellers, pp. 582–615.
73. John Morill, Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (1990), p. 155; S. R. Gardiner, Oliver Cromwell (1901), p. 155. For the loathing of the Irish see Padraig Lenihan, Confederate Catholics at War (Cork, 2000), p. 115.
74. See Malcolm Atkin, Cromwell’s Crowning Mercy: The Battle of Worcester, 1651 (Stroud, 1998).
75. Thomas Salmon, Chronological Historian (1723), p. 106; W. C. Gaunt, ed., Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell (1947), pp. 642–3.
76. Peter Gaunt, Oliver Cromwell (1996), pp. 155–6.
77. McMichael and Taft, eds, Writings of William Walwyn, pp. 433–52.
78. Brailsford, Levellers, p. 616.
79. Richard T. Vann, ‘The Later Life of Gerrard Winstanley’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 26 (1965), pp. 133–6.
80. M. Ashley, John Wildman: Plotter and Postmaster: A study of the English Republican Movement in the Seventeenth Century (1947), p. 90.
81. Alan Marshall, ‘Edward Sexby’, ODNB (2004), 49, pp. 847–9. See also Alan Marshall, ‘Killing No Murder’, History Today (February 2003).
82. Gregg, Freeborn John, pp. 312–31; Brailsford, Levellers, pp. 611–19.
83. Gregg, Freeborn John, p. 332.
84. Ibid., pp. 336–46.
85. ‘If this (seizure of power) never happened or came near to happening, in spite of the two attempts at Ware and Burford, part of the explanation was that Lilburne in his vanity must needs give Cromwell warning of what he meant to do.’ Brailsford, Levellers, p. 240.
86. Davis, ‘Levellers and Democracy’,
87. Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, pp. 179–84.
88. ‘The England of the Agreement, if ever it had come into existence, would never have grown rich by the slave trade, nor could it have conquered India.’ Brailsford, Levellers, p. 491.
89. Ibid., pp. 504–5.
90. Blair Worden, The Rump Parliament (1973), pp. 274–5.
91. Philip Baker, ‘“A Despicable Contemptible Generation of Men”: Cromwell and the Levellers’, in Patrick Little, ed. Oliver Cromwell: New Perspectives (2009), pp. 90–115.
92. This idea is developed at some length by the revisionist Marxist Edward Bernstein in Cromwell and Communism (1963). For Bernstein in general see Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, pp. 433–46.
8 The Jacobite Rising of 1745
1. For examples of the Jacobite diaspora see Rebecca Wills, The Jacobites in Russia (2002); Steve Murdoch, Network North (2006).
2. The complexity of the movement can be gauged by a reading of four entirely different approaches to the phenomenon: Paul Monod, Jacobitism and the English People, 1688–1788 (Cambridge, 1989); Jonathan Clark, English Society, 1688–1832 (1985); Alan MacInnes, Clanship, Commerce and the House of Stuart, 1603–1788 (1996); Eamonn O’Ciardha, An Unfortunate Attachment: Ireland and the Jacobite Cause, 1685–1766 (2002).
3. Again, it is instructive to contrast Daniel Szechi, Jacobitism and Tory Politics, 1710–1714 (Edinburgh, 1984) with Paul S. Fritz, The English Ministers and Jacobitism between the Rebellions of 1715 and 1745 (1975) and Doron Zimmermann, The Jacobite Movement in Scotland and Exile, 1746– 1759 (Basingstoke, 2003).
4. The moving court has been dealt with admirably in four volumes by Edward Corp, A Court In Exile: The Stuarts in France, 1689–1718 (Cambridge, 2004); The Jacobites at Urbino: An Exiled Court in Transition (2008); The Stuart Court in Rome: The Legacy of Exile (Aldershot, 2003) and with Eveline Cruickshanks, eds, The Stuart Court in Exile and the Jacobites (1995).
5. See John S. Gibson, Playing the Scottish Card: The Franco-Jacobite Invasion of 1708 (Edinburgh, 1988).
6. Edward Gregg, ‘The Jacobite Career of John, Earl of Mar’, in Eveline Cruickshanks, ed., Ideology and Conspiracy: Aspects of Jacobitism, 1689–1759 (1982), pp. 179–200.
7. For an excellent account of the disastrous ’15 see Daniel Szechi, 1715: The Great Jacobite Rebellion (Yale, 2006).
8. W. H. Dickson, The Jacobite Attempt of 1719 (Edinburgh, 1896).
9. See Peggy Miller, A Wife for the Pretender (1965).
10. For a complete biography of the prince see Frank McLynn, Charles Edward Stuart: A Tragedy in Many Acts (1988).
11. Erik Eriksson, Young Man Luther (NY, 1958) pp. 95–121.
12. McLynn, Charles Edward, pp. 348–9, 428–9, 453–4.
13. The entire plan is dealt with in comprehensive detail in Jean Colin, Louis XV et les Jacobites: Le projet de débarquement en Angleterre en 1743–44 (Paris, 1901).
14. McLynn, Charles Edward, pp. 80–3.
15. W. S. Lewis, ed., The Yale Edition of Horace Walpole’s Correspondence, 48 vols (1983), 18, pp. 373–9.
16. McLynn, Charles Edward, pp. 88–91.
17. Eveline Cruickshanks, Political Untouchables: The Tories and the ’45 (1979), pp. 53–8.
18. McLynn, Charles Edward, pp. 92–3.
19. Ibid., pp. 94–5.
20. Ibid., pp. 96–115.
21. The great proponents of ‘subjective conditions’ in the twentieth century were Mao Tse-tung and Che Guevara. See Mao, On Guerrilla Warfare, ed. Samuel B. Griffith (Ill., 2000); Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare (2002). See also J. M. Maravell, ‘Subjective Conditions and Revolutionary Conflict: Some Remarks’, British Journal of Sociology, 27 (1976), pp. 21–34; José Moreno, ‘Che Guevara on Guerrilla Warfare: Doctrine, Practice and Evaluation’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 12 (1970), pp. 114–33.
22. For Lenin’s thinking on this subject see V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (1962), 10, pp. 333–4. Trotsky agreed with him on this issue. See R. Knei-Par, The Social and Political Thought of Leon Trotsky (1978), p. 140. For a lucid summary of this aspect of Leninism vis-à-vis the theory of Marx and Engels see Steve Paxton, ‘The Communist Manifesto, Marx’s Theory of History and the Russian Revolution’, in Mark Cowling, ed., The Communist Manifesto: New Interpretations (1998), pp. 86–96; cf. also A. J. P. Taylor’s introduction to John Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World (1977), p. xviii.
23. These men are examined in detail in a number of books: Charles de la Trémoille, Une Famille royaliste, irlandaise et française (Paris, 1901); Gaston Martin, Nantes au dix-huitième siècle (Toulouse, 1928); Henri Malo, Les Derniers Corsairs, 1715–1815 (Paris, 1925).
24. For character portraits see McLynn, Charles Edward, pp. 119–20.
25. A. and H. Tayler, 1745 and After (1938), pp. 46–7.
26. The sea battle is examined in detail in Henry Paton, ed., The Lyon in Mourning, 3 vols (Edinburgh, 1895) – hereinafter LM – i, pp. 285–8.
27. LM, i, p. 205.
28. McLynn, Charles Edward, pp. 130–1.
29. Ibid., pp. 131–4.
30. For full details of this intricate operation see Christopher
Duffy, The Forty-Five (2003), pp. 175–84.
31. For the highly complex politics of the Atholl sept and the divisions between the two eldest brothers (which later inspired R. L. Stevenson’s The Master of Ballantrae) see 7th Duke of Atholl, Chronicles of the Families of Atholl and Tullibardine, 5 vols (1908). For Cluny MacPherson see Tayler, 1745 and After, pp. 66–7, and Bruce Lenman, The Jacobite Clans of the Great Glen, 1650–1784 (1984), pp. 155–6.
32. Elcho’s account of his (distinguished) role in the ’45 is in E. Charteris, ed., A Short Account of the Affairs of Scotland in 1744, 1745 and 1746 (1907) – hereinafter Elcho.
33. Murray’s own account of the ’45 is in R. Chambers, ed., Jacobite Memoirs of the Rising of 1745 (1834), which contains Murray’s ‘Marches of the Highland Army’ – hereinafter Murray, ‘Marches’. Lord George continues to be a controversial figure. A highly favourable account is provided in Katherine Tomasson, The Jacobite General (Edinburgh, 1958). Far less favourable and even at times highly critical is Duffy, The Forty-Five, pp. 102–3.
34. The issue of Scots–Irish rivalry and the clashes between the prince and Lord George Murrray form a good deal of the substance of two important primary sources for the ’45: James Maxwell of Kirkconnell, Narrative of Charles, Prince of Wales’s Expedition to Scotland in the Year 1745 (Edinburgh, 1841) – hereinafter Maxwell – and Chevalier de Johnstone, A Memoir of the Forty-Five (1820) – hereinafter Johnstone.
35. Duffy, Forty-Five, pp. 102–5.
36. Andrew McKillop, ‘Jacobitism’, in Michael Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford, 2001), pp. 349–52.
37. McLynn, ‘Sea Power and the Jacobite Rising of 1745’, Mariners’ Mirror, 67 (1981), pp. 163–72.
38. Duffy, Forty-Five, pp. 193–8.
39. McLynn, Charles Edward, pp. 145–9.
40. K. Tomasson and F. Buist, Battles of the ’45 (1962), pp. 42–61; Murray, ‘Marches’, p. 36; John Murray of Broughton, Memorials, ed. R. F. Bell (Edinburgh, 1898), pp. 198–205.
