*1975
After Babel. London: Oxford University Press.
[Linguistic universals, pronouns, proper names, subject, subject-verb-object combinations, differences of stress, organized sequence, relations of hierarchy (as between general and particular, sum and part), metaphor, the contrast between white-positive and black-negative, concept of future and other “alternities.”]
Stern, Daniel
*1977
The First Relationship: Mother and Infant. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
1985
The Interpersonal World of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Psychology. New York: Basic Books.
Stern, Daniel N., and John Dore
1985
Affect Attunement: The Sharing of Feeling States between Mother and Infant by Means of Inter-Modal Fluency. In Field and Fox, pp. 249–268.
Stocking, George W., Jr.
1968
Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology. New York: Free Press.
Swartz, M. J.
*1961
Negative Ethnocentrism. Journal of Conflict Resolution 5:75–81.
Suggs, Robert C.
1971
Sex and Personality in the Marquesas: A Discussion of the Linton-Kardiner Report. In Human Sexual Behavior, edited by Donald S. Marshall and Robert C. Suggs, pp. 163–186. New York: Basic Books.
Sumner, William Graham
*1906
Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals. Boston: Ginn.
[The classic statement on the universality of ethnocentrism and its correlates.]
Sutton-Smith, Brian, and John M. Roberts
*1981
Play, Games, and Sports. In Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology. Vol. 4, Developmental Psychology, edited by Harry C. Triandis and Alastair Heron, pp. 425–471. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
[Suggests that games may be universal.]
Symons, Donald
*1979
The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
[Sexual attractiveness.]
1987a
If We’re All Darwinians, What’s the Fuss About? In Sociobiology and Psychology: Ideas, Issues and Findings, edited by Charles Crawford, Marilyn Smith, and Dennis Krebs, pp. 121–146. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
1987b
Detecting Mr. Right. Natural History 96 (7):4.
1989
A Critique of Darwinian Anthropology. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:131–144.
*1990
On the Use and Abuse of Darwinism in the Study of Human Behavior. In The Adapted Mind, edited by Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby. New York: Oxford University Press.
Talmon, Yonina
1964
Mate Selection in Collective Settlements. American Sociological Review 29:491–508.
Tiger, Lionel
*1969
Men in Groups. New York: Random House.
Tiger, Lionel, and Robin Fox
*1971
The Imperial Animal. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
[Among the numerous possible universals that are mentioned: adornment (of young females); adultery; children’s play; courtship; culture; dance; dominant individuals a focus of attention; flirting; games of skill and chance; homicide; homosexuality; incest regulation; juvenile delinquency; loyalty; male activities that exclude females and/or are secret; male dominance (in political arena); marriage; myths and legends; obligations to give, receive, and repay; persons who attempt (or pretend) to cure the ill; property; psychoses and neuroses; rules; self-deception; senility; sexual division of labor; statuses; suicide; supernatural (deference to and attempts to control); taboos (and avoidances); and traditional restraints on the rebelliousness of young men.]
Tooby, John
1985
The Emergence of Evolutionary Psychology. In Emerging Syntheses in Science, edited by David Pines, pp. 1–6. Santa Fe: Santa Fe Institute.
Tooby, John, and Leda Cosmides
*1989a
The Innate Versus the Manifest: How Universal Does Universal Have to Be? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:36–37.
*1989b
On the Universality of Human Nature and the Uniqueness of the Individual: The Role of Genetics and Adaptation. Typescript.
1989c
Evolutionary Psychologists Need to Distinguish between the Evolutionary Process, Ancestral Selection Pressures, and Psychological Mechanisms. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:724–725.
1989d
Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture, Part I. Theoretical Considerations. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:29–49.
Tooby, John, and Irven DeVore
1987
The Reconstruction of Hominid Behavioral Evolution through Strategic Modeling. In The Evolution of Human Behavior: Primate Models, edited by Warren G. Kinzey, pp. 183–237. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Trivers, R. L.
*1971
The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35–57.
*1972
Parental Investment and Sexual Selection. In Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man, 1871–1971, edited by B. H. Campbell, pp. 136–179. Chicago: Aldine.
Turner, Frederick, and Ernst Pöppel
*1983
The Neural Lyre: Poetic Meter, the Brain, and Time. Poetry 72:277–309. (Reprinted in Natural Classicism: Essays on Literature and Science, by Frederick Turner, pp. 61–108. New York: Paragon House.)
[Metered poetry is universal; its fundamental unit is the “line.” Lines, varying within narrow limits around an average of 3 seconds in length, are demarcated by pauses and marked by repetition of one or more elements (e.g., the acoustic element of rhyme). Line length and repetition match the rhythm with which the brain processes information. All poetry allows some free variation. The association of poetry with ritual is a near-universal. The sense of time is linked to the perception of time. Humans are inveterate predictors.]
*1985
Performed Being: Word Art as a Human Inheritance. In Natural Classicism: Essays on Literature and Science, by Frederick Turner, pp. 3–57. New York: Paragon House.
Turner, Victor W.
*1966
Colour Classification in Ndembu Ritual: A Problem in Primitive Classification. Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion. ASA Monograph No. 3, edited by Michael Banton, pp. 47–84. London: Tavistock.
[Universality or near-universality of red-white-black symbolism.]
1983
Body, Brain, and Culture. Zygon 18:221–245.
Tuzin, Donald
*1984
Miraculous Voices: The Auditory Experience of Numinous Objects. Current Anthropology 25:579–596.
[Argues for the virtual universality of sound as a medium of ritual communication or experience.]
Tylor, Edward B.
*1870
Researches into the Early History of Mankind. 2d ed. London: Murray.
*1891
[1874] Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom. 3d ed., rev. Vol. I. London: Murray.
*1898
Anthropology: An Introduction to the Study of Man and Civilization. New York: Appleton.
[Universals mentioned include fire, cooking, group living, social life, families or households, marriage, ties of parent-child, rules of right and wrong, and some form of prohibition of murder.]
Ullmann, Stephen
*1963
Semantic Universals. In Greenberg, ed., pp. 172–207.
[All languages contain both “transparent” and “opaque” words (i.e., words in which there is or is not a relationship between sound and sense). Yet words as generally understood are not universal (morphemes are). Polysemy.]
Van den Berghe, Pierre
*1981
The Ethnic Phenomenon. New Yor
k: Elsevier.
[Ethnocentrism, mating regulations, cheating, kinship.]
*1983
Human Inbreeding Avoidance: Culture in Nature. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:91–123.
*1986
Skin Color Preference, Sexual Dimorphism and Sexual Selection: A Case of Gene Culture Co-evolution? Ethnic and Racial Studies 9:87–113.
Wallace, Anthony F. C.
*1961
The Psychic Unity of Human Groups. In Studying Personality Cross-Culturally, edited by Bert Kaplan, pp. 129–163. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson.
[Elementary logical concepts: not, and, and/or, identically equal, equivalent, order, etc.; psychic functions of discrimination, conditioning, and generalization; psychological defense mechanisms.]
1962
The New Culture and Personality. In Anthropology and Human Behavior, edited by Thomas Gladwin and William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Anthropological Society of Washington.
Ward, Barbara E.
*1963
Men, Women and Change: An Essay in Understanding Social Roles in South and South-East Asia. In Women in the New Asia: The Changing Social Roles of Men and Women in South and South-East Asia, edited by Barbara E. Ward, pp. 25–99. Paris: UNESCO.
Warden, Carl J.
*1936
The Emergence of Human Culture. New York: Macmillan.
[In a section entitled “The Universal Cultural Pattern,” he discusses Wissler’s scheme and then provides his own: a list of universal “needs” and “traits” under the heading of “human nature,” followed by a corresponding list of “primary pattern factors” that constitute “classes or types of cultural activities” that result from the various human needs and traits (p. 141). This framework is probably the prototype of Malinowski’s (1960 [1944]). Among the specific universals mentioned: use of hands to eat, twisted string.]
Washburn, S. L.
1959
Speculations on the Interrelations of the History of Tools and Biological Evolution. In The Evolution of Man’s Capacity for Culture, arranged by J. N. Spuhler, pp. 21–31. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
Watson, John B.
1925
Behaviorism. New York: Norton.
Weil, Andrew
*1972
The Natural Mind: A New Way of Looking at Drugs and the Higher Consciousness. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
[Proposes a universal drive for altered states of consciousness.]
Weinberg, Kirson S.
1963
Incest Behavior. New York: Citadel Press.
Weiner, Annette B.
*1985
Oedipus and the Ancestors. American Ethnologist 12:758–762.
Westermarck, Edward
*1922
The History of Human Marriage. 5th ed. Vol. II. New York: Allerton.
White, Geoffrey M.
*1980
Conceptual Universals in Interpersonal Language. American Anthropologist 82:759–781.
[A comparative study suggests that the contrasts between solidarity and conflict and between dominance and submission universally structure terms for describing personality].
White, Leslie
*1948
The Definition and Prohibition of Incest. American Anthropologist 50:416–435.
Whiting, B. B., and C. P. Edwards
*1973
A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Sex Differences in the Behavior of Children Aged Three through Eleven. Journal of Social Psychology 91:171–188.
[Describe playfighting as very likely to be innate in humans.]
Wierzbicka, Anna
*1980
Lingua Mentalis: The Semantics of Natural Language. London: Academic Press.
[Argues that all languages employ thirteen semantic primes: I, you, someone, something, world, this, want, not want, think of, say, imagine, be a part of, become.]
*1986
Human Emotions: Universal or Culture-Specific? American Anthropologist 88:584–594.
Williams, Elgin
1947
Anthropology for the Common Man. American Anthropologist 49:84–90.
Williams, George C.
1966
Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
1985
A Defense of Reductionism in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology 2:1–27.
Willner, Dorothy
1983
Definition and Violation: Incest and the Incest Taboos. Man 18:134–159.
Wilson, E. O.
1975
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
*1978
On Human Nature. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Wissler, Clark
*1923
Man and Culture. New York: Crowell Company.
Witkowski, Stanley R., and Cecil H. Brown
*1977
An Explanation of Color Nomenclature Universals. American Anthropologist 79:50–57.
*1978
Lexical Universals. Annual Review of Anthropology 7:427–451.
*1982
Whorf and Universals of Color Nomenclature. Journal of Anthropological Research 38:411–420.
Wolf, Arthur P.
*1966
Childhood Association, Sexual Attraction, and the Incest Taboo: A Chinese Case. American Anthropologist 68:883–898.
*1968
Adopt a Daughter-in-Law, Marry a Sister: A Chinese Solution to the Problem of the Incest Taboo. American Anthropologist 70:864–874.
*1970
Childhood Association and Sexual Attraction: A Further Test of the Westermarck Hypothesis. American Anthropologist 72:503–515.
Wolf, Arthur, and C. S. Huang
*1980
Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845–1945. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
Woodburn, James
*1982
Egalitarian Societies. Man 17:431–441.
[The most aggressively and successfully egalitarian societies provide only the “closest approximation to equality.” Also, they only minimize emphasis on formal meal times.]
The World of Music
*1977
Universals. Vol. 19, no. 1/2.
[This issue is devoted to discussions of the possibility of universals in music.]
*1984
Universals II. Vol. 26, no. 2.
[This issue is also devoted to discussions of the possibility of universals in music.]
Yengoyan, Aram A.
*1978
Culture, Consciousness, and Problems of Translation: The Kariera System in Cross-Cultural Perspective. In Australian Aboriginal Concepts, edited by L. R. Hiatt, pp. 146–155. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
[The logical concepts of hierarchy, equality, and part-whole relationships.]
Young, Michael
*1988
The Metronomic Society: Natural Rhythms and Human Timetables. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
[Cyclicity.]
Zipf, George Kingsley
*1949
Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Index
Abortion, 140–141, 166
Absent father pattern, 33, 35–36
Abstraction, 131
Acquisition (opposed to learning), 84, 144
Actions under/not under control, 135, 175
Adaptation(s), 100, 111
aesthetics and religion as, 114
clues to, 104
obligate and facultative, 103
phylogenetic, 101, 107, 115
playfighting as, 148n
universality as a clue to, 105
as used by sociocultural anthropologists, 101
Address terms, 75–76
Adolescent stress(lessness)
, 9, 15, 17, 143, 144, 154
Adoption, 105
Adornment, 188
of body, 69, 140, 167, 169, 196
personal, 166
special occasions for, 188
Adultery, prohibition of, 176, 196
Aesthetics, 52, 71, 114, 140, 157, 158, 161, 182, 183, 188
partial explanations of, 113, 115–116
(See also Adornment; Art)
Affecting things or people (semantic category), 133
Affection, 134
After Babel, 110, 114
Age:
differences, 145
division of labor by (see Division of labor)
grades, 69–70, 133, 176, 181
limits of Westermarck effect, 122–123, 128
at marriage, sex differences, 109
organization, 137, 164, 176, 181
study of, 150
Aggression, 182
Aggressiveness (male mating strategy), 109n, 110
Aginsky, Burt W., 77
Aginsky, Ethel G., 77
Alexander, Richard, 111
Allure, wish to, 188
Alternities, 110, 194
Altruism, 178, 182
evolution of, 105–108
Ambivalence, 135, 161, 167
anthropological (see Universals)
Amusement (feeling), 189
Anger, 26, 134, 165
Animal behavior, study of, 101
relevance to study of humans, 72, 81n
Animal communication, compared to speech, 131
Animal counterparts, 74, 95, 104, 145
of facial recognition, 112
of fear of snakes, 115
of incest avoidance, 118, 124, 128
Murdock’s views against, 63
Animism, 159
Anthropologists:
acceptance of exaggerations of importance of culture, 64
distortions by, rooted in reward structures, 155
emphasis and exaggeration of differences, 154–155
self-serving nature of, 154–155
Human Universals Page 29
