Human Universals

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Human Universals Page 30

by Donald E Brown


  (See also Differences)

  as intercultural brokers, 154

  myths of [see Myth(s), anthropological]

  physical, 41, 149

  refutations of studies of, 9–10, 14–23, 27–31, 64n

  reliance on human similarities of, 154, 178

  skepticism toward (Freudian) psychology, 38

  skepticism toward universals, 1, 5, 6, 26, 54, 58, 64, 73, 75, 81, 82

  as specialists in the study of hunters and gatherers, 86, 150

  taboos of [see Taboo(s)]

  Anthropology:

  aim of, 80–81, 142

  assumptions of, 6, 156

  contradictions in, 149

  dominant paradigm in, 149

  handicapped by its assumptions, 156

  and human evolution, 86

  impressionism of, 155

  influence of, on moral philosophy, 154

  and problem of separating nature from culture, 147

  propositions informing, 145–149

  and psychology, 26, 38, 87, 110, 150, 156

  role of, in determining what is universal, 149–150

  special role of, 153–154

  and study of human mind, 150, 156

  and study of mental mechanisms, 86

  unconcern of, with origins and evolution, 55, 56, 143, 144

  Anthropomorphisation, 139, 168, 170, 180, 187

  Antinomous thinking (see Binary distinctions)

  Antireductionism, 56–58, 60, 72n, 73n, 120, 143–146

  (See also Reductionism)

  Antonyms, 133

  Appell, George N., 47–48

  Arbitrariness, cultural and linguistic, 6, 24, 25, 65, 77, 131, 146

  of color classification, 11–13

  as hallmark of culture, 148

  limits on, 98

  overstatement of, 148–149

  Archaeology, 150

  Archoses, 96–97, 117

  Arens, William, 118, 119n, 123n, 124–125

  Art, 59, 114, 115–116, 158, 165, 166, 169, 176

  associated with ritual, 167

  decorative, 69, 140, 162

  literary, 162, 176

  themes in, 158

  (See also Aesthetics; Adornment)

  Artificial intelligence, 85, 144

  Associationism, 84

  Athletic sports, 69

  Attractiveness, 180, 181

  Authority, legal, 188

  Bagish, Henry, 155

  Bamberger, Joan, 23

  Basic Color Terms, 10–14, 37–38, 80, 81

  Basic colors, 13, 133

  Basic vocabulary words, 177

  Bastian, Adolph, 54n, 55

  Beauty, standards of, 161

  Behavior:

  genetics, 147n

  interpretation of, 134, 168

  sociocultural and biological meanings of, 101

  Behavioral propensities, 133

  Behaviorism, 60–61, 73, 77, 83, 85, 143, 144

  Beliefs, 59, 139

  Benedict, Ruth, 1, 14n, 64–66, 69, 143

  (See also Patterns of Culture)

  Berlin, Brent, 10–14, 37–38

  (See also Basic Color Terms)

  Bidney, David, 70–71, 86n, 149, 155

  on human nature and universals, 71

  Binary distinctions, 90, 92, 99, 150, 166, 170, 178, 190

  Biogrammar, 81

  Biography/hagiography, 152

  Biological and ontogenetic explanations, 113

  Biological clocks, 93

  Biological givens, 92, 117

  Biological sciences:

  earlier turmoil in, 60, 62, 143

  impact of, in understanding incest avoidance, 128

  recent influence on anthropology, 82–83, 87

  theoretically organized by evolutionary theory, 144

  Biological universals, 49

  Kluckhohn on, 72

  Kroeber on, 64

  Wissler on, 59

  Biology:

  as basis for universals, 59, 70, 72, 149

  and language, 77–78

  shapes human behavior, denied, 19

  Biology/culture, contrast of, 40–41, 56, 62–64, 88, 102, 143

  Biology/psychology as basis or explanation of universals, 6, 62, 71, 88, 94, 97, 117

  Biology/society, contrast of (see Biology/culture)

  Biophobia, 155

  Birdwhistell, Ray L., 23–24

  Birth and death, consciousness of, 167

  Birth customs and practices, 69, 136

  Black and white, 13–14, 133, 134, 161, 167

  valuation of, 194

  Black, white, and red, 12, 14, 161

  Bloch, Maurice, 76, 82, 86, 92–94, 153, 155

  Bloom, Allan, 155

  Boas, Franz, 14, 19, 31, 60, 65, 86

  culture concept of, 55

  on universals, 55–56, 58

  on race, 55

  Boasians, 63, 65, 68, 72n

  Murdock not among, 63

  particularism of, 1

  reactions to, 68–69

  in study of race/culture, 54, 55, 57, 60

  Body:

  classification of parts of, 133

  decoration (see Adornment)

  size, sex differences in, 110

  Brain, 82, 86–87 98–99, 113, 144

  complexity of, 148

  holistic view of, 61

  lateral specialization of, 90, 157

  lesions and deficits, 82, 85, 99, 144, 150

  localization of faculties in, 61n, 85

  (See also Localizers)

  and poetic line, 116, 150

  and religion, 114–115

  Brain cell specialization, 85, 144

  British social anthropology, 66–68

  Brown, Cecil H., 14

  Calendar, 69, 133

  Hopi, 28, 30, 31

  Capital punishment, 141, 187

  Categorization, 14

  (See also Classification)

  Causal thinking, 99, 166, 170

  Causation in explanation of universals, 89, 117

  Cheating, 198

  Childcare, 136, 182

  sex differences in providing, 109, 137, 184, 189

  Childrearing, 16, 21, 137

  (See also Socialization)

  Children, 136–137

  Chimpanzee Politics, 111

  Choice making, 135

  Chomsky, Noam, 42–43, 47, 50, 77, 84, 113, 144, 155n, 164

  criticizes learning theory, 147

  on innateness as a defense against tyranny, 155n

  Classification, 14, 133, 167, 169, 170

  and aesthetics, 116

  of age, 94, 133, 137, 162, 181

  and art, 116

  of behavioral propensities, 133

  of body parts, 133

  of color, 77, 200

  of flora and fauna, 14, 46, 69, 133

  of inner states, 133, 175

  of kin, 69, 137, 162, 165, 170

  of personality, 199

  of sex (gender), 94, 137, 162, 181

  fundamental duality, 133–134

  of space, 133

  of tools, 133

  of weather conditions, 133

  Class-subclass (logic), 170

  Coalitions, 107, 138

  Coevolution, 74

  Cognitive development, stages of, 166

  Cognitive imperative, 99

  Collective decisions, 138

  Collective identities, 137

  Color, 167, 190

  classification of, 77, 200

  Color terms (see Basic Color Terms)

  Coming of Age in Samoa, 9, 14–21, 60, 61, 65, 81, 143, 144

  (See also Mead, Margaret)

  “Common Denominator of Cultures, The,” 69–70

  Common sense, 192

  Communication (facial, nonverbal, and symbolic), 134

  Comparative Functionalism, 76

  Comparative perspective, 145, 156

  Complementary filiation, 105

  Componential an
alysis, 46, 48n, 75–76, 80, 133

  (See also Ethnosemantics)

  Conceptualization, 166

  Conceptualizing universals, 39–42

  Concomitant variation, method of, 89

  Conditional statements, 161

  Conditional universals (see Universals)

  Confessions of a Former Cultural Relativist, 155

  Conflict, 59, 138, 176, 178

  ways of dealing with, 138

  Conjectural reasoning, 134, 150

  Consciousness, altered states of, 136, 199

  Conservation of energy, 98, 117

  Containers, 135, 165

  Contempt (and facial expression of), 26, 134, 168, 177

  Conversation structure, 185

  Cooking, 50, 69, 136, 179, 197

  uses of, 95

  Coon, Carleton, 71–72

  Cooperation, 69, 138, 139, 161, 165

  Cosmides, Leda, 83, 85, 86, 103n, 106, 147n, 148

  Cosmology (see Worldview)

  Counting, 46, 133, 157, 178

  Courtship, 69

  Coyness display, 48, 52, 83, 85, 101, 134

  Cradle traits, 56, 63–64, 71, 95, 159, 164

  Critical period, 104, 113, 123, 128, 181

  Cross-cultural comparison and generalization, 27, 75, 82

  Cross-species studies (see Animal counterparts; Interspecific comparison)

  Crying, 83, 134

  Cultural and noncultural, difficulty of distinguishing between, 64

  Cultural anthropology:

  developed by Tylor, 54–56

  and explanation of universals, 149–150

  not concerned with universals, 64

  Cultural determinism, 3, 6, 19, 61, 62, 75, 143, 146, 148

  Cultural evolutionists, 73n

  Cultural explanations, 88, 97, 103n, 113, 117, 127

  Cultural processes, 95

  Cultural reflection or recognition, 92–94, 117

  Cultural relativism (see Relativism)

  Cultural scheme, 71

  (See also “The Universal Pattern”)

  Cultural traditions rich for humans, 145

  Cultural universals, 39–40, 63, 142

  as determinants of human nature, 81

  (See also Universals, cultural)

  Cultural variability, 65, 143, 146

  overstatement of, 148–149

  Culture, 141, 180, 196

  as autonomous level or phenomenon, 6, 56, 58, 60, 62–65, 143–144, 146

  criticisms of, 71, 74, 149, 155

  comes from nature, 147

  concept and dilemma of universals, 62–63

  concept in middle-level propositions, 146

  definition of, 40, 130

  evolution of, 68–69

  as exclusive subject of ethnology, 57

  and explanation of differences, 146–148

  expressive, 153

  and the human mind, 72

  and language, 40, 98

  as locus of universals, 39–42, 50

  Malinowski on, 67

  material, 40, 58

  material determinants of, 68, 144

  as principal determinant of human behavior, 6, 62, 75, 143, 146

  absence of way to quantify, 148

  as product of human action, 99

  role of universals in, 150–151

  universal model for analysis of, 71

  universals as deep syntax and lexicon of, 153

  Culture/biology (see Biology/culture; Nature/culture; Nature/nurture)

  Culture/nature (see Biology/culture; Nature/culture; Nature/nurture)

  Cultures or societies as focus of study, 143

  Curiosity, 99, 167, 176

  Cutters, 135

  Cyclicity, 201

  of time, 133

  Daily routines, 139, 165

  Daly, Martin, 86, 105, 107, 109, 155

  Dance, 69, 140, 162, 186, 196

  Danger, inability of society to prevent, 193

  D’Aquili, Eugene G., 99, 111

  Dark and light, 33

  Darwin, on emotions, 24

  Darwinian evolution as inclusive theoretical framework, 6, 144

  Darwinian thought, 62, 143

  synthesized with Mendelism, 62, 144

  Darwinian view of Westermarck, 120

  De Waal, Franz, 111

  Deaf language, 41n, 113

  Death customs (see Treatment, of the dead)

  Death related to sickness, 176

  Decision making, 135, 175

  collective, 138, 170

  Deep and shallow, 132

  Deep-noted instruments, 114

  Deep processes, structures, universals, 44, 77, 113, 156, 171, 181

  Defense mechanisms, 180, 193, 196, 198

  Definitions, universally valid, 80

  Determinism, sociocultural (see Cultural determinism; Culture)

  Differences, emphasis and exaggeration of, 2, 3, 5, 23, 31, 38, 66n, 73, 76, 82, 154–156

  self-serving nature of, 154–155

  Diffusion, diffusionist explanations, 95, 117

  (See also Cradle traits)

  Dimension, 133

  (See also Measure)

  Directions, giving, 133, 181

  Discrepancies between talk, thought, and action, 130

  Disgust, 26, 134

  Displacement, 34, 193

  Display rules, 25, 26

  Dispositions, 110–111

  Dispute settlement, 169

  consultation and mediation in, 138

  Dissanayake, Ellen, 115–116

  Diurnality, 139

  Divination, 69, 139, 153n

  Division of labor, 39, 69, 161

  by sex and age, 48, 137, 157, 165, 184, 196

  Dog, 44, 50

  Dominance, 2, 159, 161, 196

  Dominants as focus of attention, 196

  Douglas, Mary, 64

  Dream interpretation, 69, 139

  Dreaming, 139, 157, 176, 180, 187

  Dress, 58

  Drill, 59

  Dualistic thought (see Binary distinctions)

  Durkheim, Émile, 60

  Education, 67, 69

  Effects (as opposed to functions), 101–102, 111

  Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus, 52, 83, 101

  “Eighteen Professions,” 56, 57

  Ekman, Paul (and associates), 10, 24–27, 51–52, 98

  Elementary ideas, 54n, 55, 97, 114, 178

  The Elementary Structures of Kinship, 64n, 72, 98–99

  Emic/etic, 76, 80–81, 91n, 131, 140

  defined, 48

  universals, 48–49

  Emotion(s), 23–27, 39, 75, 113, 115, 116, 135, 165, 175, 199

  and aesthetics, 116

  basic, coarse, elementary, or primary, 26, 52, 191

  as basis for exceptions to universality, 36

  Empathy, 134, 135, 139–141, 159, 165, 168

  Endorphins and ritual, 115

  Entification, 137, 158

  Environment, humans’ adjustment to, 136

  Environment, of human evolutionary history, 50, 86, 100–101

  Environmentalism, arch, 62

  (See also Cultural determinism; Relativism, extreme cultural)

  Envy, 139, 169

  Equality (logic), 201

  Eschatology, 69

  Ethics (see Morality)

  Ethnicity, 138

  Ethnocentrism, 79, 107n, 138–139, 158, 163, 169, 189, 195, 198

  ethical dualism of, 139

  and sense of being a distinct people, 136

  (See also In-group/out-group)

  Ethnoscience, 82, 92

  Ethnosemantics, 82, 92

  (See also Componential analysis)

  Ethological perspective, 129

  Ethology, 78, 81, 82, 101, 144

  and explanation of incest avoidance, 129

  lessons drawn from, 81n

  recent influence on anthropology, 83

  Ethos, 171

  Etic grid, 48n

  Etiquette,
69, 139, 162, 167

  Eugenics, 55, 62

  Evolution:

  accident in, 103–104

  of basic color terms, 11, 13–14

  compromise in, 103–104

  conservatism in, 103–104

  cultural, 68–69, 73n

  of human species, 145

  ignored in British social anthropology, 66

  natural selection in, 83n, 100

  of racial differences, 101n

  Evolutionary biology:

  basic elements of, 99–105

  design and function in, 100–102

  after World War II, decreased interest in, 73

  Evolutionary perspective and incest avoidance, 129

  Evolutionary psychology, 6, 83, 84, 115, 165, 187

  Evolutionary sequence of basic color terms, 11, 13–14

  Evolutionary sequences as implicational universals, 46

  Evolutionary theory, 81, 85, 99–111, 117, 143, 144

  conservation of energy in, 98

  alternatives to, in explaining universals, 117

  presumed, 110–111

  recent influence on anthropology, 82

  (See also Natural selection)

  Evolutionary universals, 188

  Evolutionists, cultural, 68–69

  Exchange, 59, 138, 169, 170, 181, 182

  Experiential universals, 47, 180, 192

  Explanation(s):

  no zero-sum game between biology and culture, 156

  proximate/ultimate, 104

  of religion and aesthetics, 71

  of universals, 14, 44, 45, 52, 72, 80, 83, 88–117, 141, 142, 149–151, 153, 164

  alternatives for, 117

  formal or methodological, 116–117

  Expressive culture, 153

  Extrinsic universals, 49–50

  Face:

  recognition of individuals by, 135

  word for, 78

  Facial affect program, 25, 26, 98

  Facial expressions (of emotion), 10, 23–27, 38, 39, 51–52, 83, 85, 101, 134, 168, 177, 190

  indicating basic emotions, 26–27

  masking, mimicking, and modifying, 134

  as universals of content, 48

  Facial recognition, ontogeny of, 112

  Facultative adaptation, 103

  Faculty psychology, 61n

  Family, 47, 59, 69, 136, 137, 141, 165, 182, 197

  male involvement in, 136

  mother and children as basis of, 136

  regulation of members of, 182

  Family complex, 10, 32

  Fear(s), 26, 134, 161, 169

  childhood, 135, 179

  overcoming, 135

  of snakes, 135, 190

  of strangers, 107n, 135

  suppression of, 179

  Feasting, 69, 139

  Female:

  attractiveness, 181

  orgasm, 102

  Fighting with hands, 165

  Figurative language, 132, 162

  Fire, 44, 50, 69, 135, 136, 164, 165, 179, 197

  uses of, 95

  “First Contact,” 3, 4, 52

  Fisher, R. A., 62

  Fitness, 100, 106–107

  Fixed action patterns, 101, 146, 147

  (See also Instincts)

  Fodor, Jerry A., 85

 

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