Anonymous Soldiers

by Bruce Hoffman

  For more than a decade, I have had the honor of being associated with the U.S. Military Academy’s Center for Combating Terrorism. Lieutenant Colonel Reid Sawyer, a previous executive director of the center, was an enthusiastic advocate of this project. I am grateful to him and to his successors, Colonel Kip McCormick, Lieutenant Colonel Joe Felter (Ret.), Lieutenant Colonel Liam Collins, and Major Bryan Price, for their constant support, and to their commanders, both past and present, Brigadier Generals Russ Howard (Ret.) and Michael Meese (Ret.), and Colonel Cindy Jebb, for allowing me to contribute to their mission of educating a new generation of officers thoroughly versed in the intricacies of counterterrorism and counterinsurgency.

  I am very pleased as well to acknowledge the financial assistance provided by Georgetown University’s George T. Kalaris Intelligence Studies Fund and the School of Foreign Service’s Center for Security Studies in the preparation of this manuscript.

  As a professor at Georgetown, I was able to recruit my graduate students in the Security Studies Program as research assistants to help with a variety of both mundane and more specialized research tasks. It is a pleasure finally to be able to pay tribute in this manner to the dedication and hard work of Erin Brennan, Zeke Fraint, Anna-Britt Kasupski McCabe, David King, Alexandra Knatchbull, Rebecca Lindgren, Gideon Sher, Amy Buenning Sturm, Caitlyn Turgeon, Jessica Unthank, Christopher Wall, and Martin Wolberg-Stok. Sapir Yarden, an undergraduate in the School of Foreign Service, also helped with some translations of material from Hebrew to English.

  At Georgetown, I must also thank the former dean of the School of Foreign Service, Carol Lancaster, and the current interim dean, James Reardon-Anderson, for their unstinting support and friendship. Similarly, the previous and current associate directors of the Security Studies Program, Ellen McHugh and Colonel David Maxwell (Ret.), both generously took on additional responsibilities in order for me to be able to devote my attention to writing and finishing this book. Both my faculty colleagues in the program and its superlative staff were remarkably understanding and supportive as well.

  Many friends played an instrumental role in any number of dimensions of this book. My deepest thanks therefore go to Christopher Andrew, Peter Bergen, David Brannan, Tim Clifford, Mark Cochrane, Hannah Cotton, David Eisenberg, Richard English, Alon Kadish, the late Peter Lipton, Sean Magee, Ari Paltiel, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Fernando Reinares, Anders Stephanson, Calder Walton, and Ali Watson among others. Walter Laqueur deserves special mention as a dear friend and esteemed mentor who was also fascinatingly right across the street when the King David Hotel was bombed, attended Roy Farran’s trial, and met many of the dramatis personae described in Anonymous Soldiers.

  When this project was at a very embryonic stage, one of my oldest friends, Carol Ann Bernheim, together with Benjamin Pogrund, the founder and director of Jerusalem’s Yakar Centre for Social Concern, arranged to host a seminar at which I presented a paper that eventually became the book’s preface. This remarkable event, which was attended by Palestinian activists and Israeli government officials, including a future ambassador to the United States, underscored for me the utility of using Britain’s unhappy rule of Palestine as a case study through which to better understand how governments respond to, and are influenced by, terrorism.

  On another visit to Jerusalem, Julian Barnett very kindly arranged for me to be given a private tour of Government House by Francesco Manca, an official with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, whose headquarters are now located there.

  In an entirely different category, I remain eternally grateful to Alan Dackiw, Andrew Umhau, Assil Saleh, Vincent Desiderio, Bruce Kressel, Samuel Potolicchio, and John Gualtieri for reasons of which they each are well aware.

  My old friend and colleague Daniel Byman of Georgetown University read an earlier version of this manuscript, which was nearly double the book’s current length, and provided a raft of useful comments and observations. Benny Morris of Ben-Gurion University read the final version and was also extremely helpful in pointing out various minor factual errors.

  Eric Lupfer of William Morris Endeavor Entertainment was an early, enthusiastic, and long-standing proponent of this project and was tireless in his efforts to find the right publisher for it. That he succeeded is evidenced by the superb editing done by Knopf’s Andrew Miller; the excellent assistance with maps, photographs, and securing copyright permissions provided by Will Heyward; and the outstanding support furnished by Maria M. Massey, the book’s production editor. Ingrid Sterner did a truly amazing job copyediting a long and unwieldy manuscript that had gone through three rounds of significant cuts—and the numerous inconsistencies that inevitably creates.

  As is almost always the case, an author’s greatest debt is to his family. The first months of writing Anonymous Soldiers saw the successive deaths of my father, father-in-law, and a favorite uncle. I miss them all terribly and most especially my father, who would have been very pleased to read this book.

  At the end of the day, whatever I have done and whatever I might still achieve is due entirely to my wife and children, to whom Anonymous Soldiers is dedicated with both love and the profoundest appreciation.

  Appendix

  Who Was Who

  The brief biographical notes below pertain to people who played a leading role in the events described in this book. The information provided is mostly relevant to the period 1917–47, although in the case of some of the leading Zionist figures, their subsequent public roles in the State of Israel are also noted.

  Allenby, General Sir Edmund Henry Hynman (1861–1936). Commander in chief, Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1917–19; promoted to field marshal, 1919.

  Andrews, Lewis Yelland (1896–1937). Military service, Australian Imperial Force, 1914–20; district officer and assistant district commissioner, 1920–32; development officer, 1932–36; liaison officer, Royal (Peel) Commission on Palestine, 1936; acting district commissioner, the Galilee, 1937.

  Attlee, Clement (1883–1967). Member, Parliament, 1922–50; leader, Labour Party, 1935–55; lord privy seal, 1940–42; secretary of state for the dominions, 1942–43; lord president of the council, 1943–45; deputy prime minister, 1942–45; prime minister, 1945–51.

  Balfour, Sir Arthur James (1848–1930). Member, Parliament, 1874–1922; secretary of state for foreign affairs, 1916–19.

  Barker, Lieutenant General Sir Evelyn (1894–1983). General officer commanding British forces, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1946.

  Battershill, Sir William Denis (1896–1959). Chief secretary, Palestine government, 1937–39.

  Baxter, Charles William (1895–1969). Head, Eastern Department, Foreign Office, 1940–47.

  Beeley, Sir Harold (1909–2001). Adviser to the foreign secretary on Palestine, 1945–48; secretary, Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry on Palestine, 1946.

  Begin, Menachem (1913–92). Member, Betar, 1927–39; leader, Betar, 1939; incarcerated, 1940–41; military service, Polish army in exile, 1941–43; commander in chief, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1943–48; founder and leader, Herut Party, 1948–77; member, Knesset, Israel, 1949–83; prime minister, Israel, 1977–83.

  Ben-Gurion, David (1886–1973). Secretary-general, Histadrut, 1920; chairman, Jewish Agency Executive, 1935–48; prime minister and minister of defense, Israel, 1948–53; prime minister, Israel, 1955–63.

  Ben-Yosef, Shlomo (1913–38). Member, Betar, 1937–38.

  Ben-Zvi, Yitzhak (1884–1963). Chairman, Vaad Le’umi, 1931–44; president, Vaad Le’umi, 1944–49; president, Israel, 1952–63.

  Bergson, Peter (Hillel Kook) (1915–2001). Member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1931–39; U.S.-based emissary, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1940–48; member, Knesset, 1949–51.

  Berlin, Sir Isaiah (1909–97). British Ministry of Information, New York, 1941–42, Washington, D.C., 1942–45, Moscow, 1945–46.

  Bevin, Ernest (1881–1951). General secretary, Transport and General Workers’ Union, 1922–40; member, Parliament, 1940–51; m
inister of labor and national service, 1940–45; foreign secretary, 1945–51.

  Cassels, Major General Archibald James Halkett (1907–96). Commander, Sixth Airborne Division, Palestine, 1946.

  Chancellor, Sir John Robert (1870–1952). High commissioner, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1928–31.

  Charteris, Lieutenant Colonel Martin Michael Charles (1913–99). Director of military intelligence, Palestine, 1944–45.

  Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer (1874–1965). Member, Parliament, 1900–1922, 1924–45; secretary of state for the colonies, 1921–22; first lord of the Admiralty, 1939–40; prime minister and minister of defense, 1940–45; prime minister, 1951–55; minister of defense, 1951–52.

  Creech Jones, Arthur (1891–1964). Member, Parliament, 1935–50; parliamentary undersecretary, Colonial Office, 1945–46; colonial secretary, 1946–50.

  Crocker, Sir John Tredinnick (1896–1963). Commander in chief, Middle East Land Forces, Cairo, 1947–50.

  Crossman, Richard Howard Stafford (1907–74). Member, Parliament, 1945–74; British delegate to the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry on Palestine, 1946.

  Crum, Bartley (1900–1959). U.S. delegate to the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry on Palestine, 1946.

  Cunningham, General Sir Alan Gordon (1887–1983). General officer commanding, East Africa Forces, 1940–41; general officer commanding in chief, Eighth Army, Middle East, 1941; commandant, Staff College, 1942; lieutenant general and general officer commanding, Northern Ireland, 1943; general officer commanding in chief, Eastern Command, 1944; general and high commissioner, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1945–48.

  Dalton, Hugh John Neale (1887–1962). Member, Parliament, 1924–31, 1935–59; minister of economic warfare, 1940–42; president, Board of Trade, 1942–45; Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1945–47.

  D’Arcy, Lieutenant General John Conyers (1894–1966). General officer commanding British forces, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1944–46.

  Dempsey, General Sir Miles (1896–1969). Commander in chief, Middle East Land Forces, Cairo, 1946–47.

  Dill, Field Marshal Sir John Greer (1881–1944). General officer commanding British forces, Palestine and Tran-Jordan, 1936–37.

  Dowbiggin, Herbert (1880–1966). Inspector general of police, British Ceylon, 1913–37; adviser on police, Palestine, 1930.

  Dugdale, Blanche “Baffy” Elizabeth (1890–1948). Niece of Arthur James Balfour; British Zionist; Jewish Agency political department, London, 1940–48.

  Eastwood, Christopher Gilbert (1905–83). Private secretary to successive colonial secretaries, 1940–41; principal assistant secretary, Cabinet Office, 1945–47; assistant undersecretary, Colonial Office, 1947–52.

  Eden, Robert Anthony (1897–1977). Member, Parliament, 1923–57; foreign secretary, 1935–38, 1940–45, 1951–55; deputy prime minister, 1951–55; prime minister, 1955–57.

  Eyres, Harry Maurice (1898–1962). Consul, Eastern Department, Foreign Office, 1938–44.

  Farran, Major Roy (1921–2006). Military service, World War II, Third Hussars, Crete and Greece, 1940–41; Second Special Air Service, North Africa, Sicily, Italy, France, Norway, 1942–46; Third Hussars, Syria and Palestine, 1946; seconded to Palestine Police Force, 1947.

  Fergusson, Colonel Bernard (Lord Ballantrae) (1911–80). Military service, Black Watch, 1930–35; aide-de-camp to General Wavell, 1935–37; military service, Arab Rebellion; battalion intelligence officer, Jerusalem, 1937–38; instructor, Royal Military College, 1939; military service, World War II; General Staff, Middle East Command, Cairo, 1939–41; General Headquarters Joint Planning Staff, Delhi, India, 1942; Chindits, Burma, 1942–43; director, Jungle Warfare Training School, 1944; director, Combined Operations (Military), 1945–46; assistant inspector general of training, Palestine Police Force, 1946–47.

  Friedman-Yellin (Yalin-Mor), Nathan (1913–80). Member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi B’Yisrael, 1940–43; member, Lohamei Herut Yisrael high command, 1943–48; member, Knesset, 1949–51.

  Gale, General Sir Richard Nelson (1896–1982). Commander, First Infantry Division, Haifa, 1946–47.

  Galili, Israel (1911–86). Head, Haganah National Staff, 1946–48; member, Knesset, 1949–51, 1955–77.

  García-Granados, Jorge (1900–1961). Guatemalan delegate to the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP), 1947.

  Gater, Sir George Henry (1886–1963). Permanent undersecretary, Colonial Office, 1942–47.

  Golomb, Eliahu (1883–1945). Founding member and leader, Haganah, 1920–45.

  Gort, Lord Field Marshal John Standish Surtees Prendergast Vereker (1886–1946). Chief of the Imperial General Staff, 1937–39; commander in chief, British field force, 1939–40; inspector general to forces for training, 1940–41; governor, Gibraltar, 1941–42; governor, Malta, 1942–44; high commissioner, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1944–45.

  Gray, Colonel William Nicol (1908–88). Military service, World War II; Royal Marines, 1939–46; inspector general, Palestine Police Force, 1946–48; commissioner of police, Malayan Federation, 1948–52.

  Gruner, Dov (1912–47). Member, Betar, 1938–40; military service, World War II, British army, 1941–46; member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1946–47.

  Gurney, Sir Henry (1898–1951). Chief secretary, Palestine government, 1946–48; high commissioner, Malayan Federation, 1948–51.

  Haining, General Sir Robert Hadden (1882–1959). General officer commanding British forces, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1938–39.

  Hall, George Henry (1881–1965). Member, Parliament, 1922–46; parliamentary undersecretary, Colonial Office, 1940–42; financial secretary, Admiralty, 1942–43; parliamentary undersecretary, Foreign Office, 1943–45; colonial secretary, 1945–46.

  Hunloke, Colonel Henry Philip (1906–78). Defense security officer, Palestine, 1944–45.

  Husseini, Haj Amin al- (1897–1974). Mufti of Jerusalem, 1921; president, Supreme Muslim Council, 1922–37; grand mufti of Jerusalem, 1922–48.

  Isham, Lieutenant Colonel Sir Gyles (1903–76). Defense security officer, Palestine, 1945–46.

  Jabotinsky, Vladimir “Ze’ev” (1880–1940). Military service, World War I, British army, 1917–19; elected representative, Zionist Organization, 1920–23; head, Betar, 1923–40; president, Revisionist Party, 1923–35; president, New Zionist Organization, 1935–40.

  Katz, Samuel (1914–2008). Member, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1936–48; spokesman and member of high command, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1946–48; member, Knesset, 1949–51; adviser to the prime minister of information abroad, 1977–78.

  Keith-Roach, Edward (1885–1954). Public custodian of enemy property, Palestine, 1919; first assistant secretary, Palestine government, 1920–24; assistant district commissioner, northern Palestine, 1931–37; district commissioner, Jerusalem, 1937–43.

  Killearn, Lord (Sir Miles Wedderburn Lampson) (1880–1964). British ambassador to Egypt and high commissioner, Sudan, 1936–46.

  Kollek, Teddy (1911–2007). Deputy head of intelligence, Jewish Agency, 1942–45; chief liaison officer to British intelligence, 1945–46; Haganah representative in Washington, D.C., 1947–48; mayor, Jerusalem, 1965–93.

  Lloyd, Lord (Sir George Ambrose) (1879–1941). Colonial secretary and leader of the House of Lords, 1940–41.

  Lloyd Phillips, Ivan (1910–84). Colonial administrative service, Palestine, 1938–47; district commissioner, Gaza-Beersheba, 1946–47.

  MacDonald, James Ramsay (1866–1937). Member, Parliament, 1906–35; prime minister, 1924, 1929–35.

  MacDonald, Malcolm John (1901–81). Son of Ramsay MacDonald; member, Parliament, 1929–35, 1936–45; colonial secretary, 1935, 1938–40.

  MacMichael, Sir Harold (1882–1969). High commissioner, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1938–44.

  MacMillan, General Sir Gordon Holmes Alexander (1897–1986). General officer commanding British forces, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1947–48.

  MacPherson, Sir John Stuart (1898–1971). Chief secretary, Palestine government, 1939–43
.

  Martin, Sir John Miller (1904–91). Secretary, Royal (Peel) Commission on Palestine, 1936; private (later principal private) secretary to prime minister, 1940–45; assistant (later deputy) undersecretary, Colonial Office, 1945–65.

  McConnel, Major General Douglas Fitzgerald (1893–1961). General officer commanding British forces, Palestine and Trans-Jordan, 1941–44.

  Meridor, Ya’acov (1913–95). Commander in chief, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1941–43; deputy commander in chief, Irgun Zvai Le’umi, 1943–45; incarceration, 1945–48; member, Knesset, 1949–69, 1981–84; minister of economics and inter-ministry coordination, Israel, 1981–84.

  Meyerson (Meir), Golda (1898–1978). Secretary, Women’s Labour Council of the Histadrut (General Federation of Jewish Workers), 1924–28; member, Histadrut Executive Committee, 1934–46; head, Histadrut political department, 1936–46; acting head, Jewish Agency political department, 1946; head, Jewish Agency political department, 1946–48; member, Knesset, 1949–74; minister of labor, Israel, 1949–56; foreign minister, Israel, 1956–66; prime minister, Israel, 1969–74.

  Monroe, Elizabeth (1905–86). Director, Middle East Division, British Ministry of Information, 1940; diplomatic correspondent, The Observer, 1944; British representative, United Nations Sub-commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 1947–51; staff, The Economist, 1945–58.

  Montgomery, 1st Viscount (Field Marshal Sir Bernard Law) (1887–1976). Commander, Eighth Infantry Division, Haifa, 1938–39; chief of the Imperial General Staff, 1946–48.

  Morrison, Herbert Stanley (1888–1965). Member, Parliament, 1923–24, 1929–31, 1935–59; home secretary, 1940–45; leader, House of Commons, 1945–51; lord president of the council, 1945–51; deputy prime minister, 1945–51.