132 eusocial: Wilson 1971, Gadagkar 1990
135 ants are extractive foragers: Wilson 1962, Hangartner 1969, Moglich and Hölldobler 1975, Hölldobler 1978
135 release a chemical: Allies et al. 1986
137 he removed the lead ant: Hölldobler 1971
138 “When a forager finds”: Sudd and Franks 1987, p. 112.
139 Ravens in Winter: Heinrich 1991
142 did culture seemingly stagnate: Hadingham 1980
143 Acheulean hand ax: O’Brien 1981, Calvin 1993, Davidson and Noble 1993, Kohn and Mithen 1999.
8: THE BIG BANG
147 “Out of Africa”: Stringer and McKie 1996
147 multiregional hypothesis: Thorne and Wolpoff 1992
147 As the human family multipled: compare, for example, anthropology.si.edu/humanorigins/ha/a_tree.html and www.livescience.com/history/070831_hn_family_tree.html.
149 Microevolution’s fine by them: www.antievolution.org/features/nas_ohio_20040209.pdf.
149 speciation: Foley and Lahr 2005
149 the published proceedings: Mellars et al. 2007
149 human and chimp ancestors: Disotell 2006
150 Ilya Ivanov: journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=124129
151 a map showing archaeological sites: www.handprint.com/LS/ANC/disp.html. 151 recent discoveries: Spoor et al. 2007
151 “The fact that they stayed separate”: Maeve Leakey, quoted in The Washington Post, Science Notebook, August 13, 2007
153 “variable speedism”: Dawkins 1987, p. 247
154 continental drift: Wegener 1924
156 woman the gatherer: Dahlberg 1975
157 man the hunter: Lee and DeVore 1968, Stanford 1999
157 “Did bands of early humans”: Stanford 1999, p. 106
159 ants are eusocial: Wilson 1971
160 Saramaccan: Price 1976
161 men hunt and women gather: Panter-Brick et al. 2001, Barnard 2004
162 the enormous number of hand axes: Isaac 1977, Schick 2001
162 projectiles used in hunting: O’Brien 1981, Calvin 1993
162 a form of sexual display: Kohn and Mithen 1999, Miller 2000
163 hacking out chunks: Bunn and Kroll 1986
164 “Neither would transport”: O’Connell et al. 1999, p. 478. See also O’Connell et al. 1988
167 “Our Miocene primate ancestors”: Boyd and Richerson n.d., p. 4
168 “small variations of the”: Wikipedia, “Butterfly effect” (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly_effect).
9: THE CHALLENGE FROM CHOMSKY
169 he trounced B. F. Skinner: Chomsky 1959
170 twin demons of innatism: Hauser 1996, 33–43
170 “Well, it seems to me”: Chomsky cited in Harnad et al. 1976
170 ELIZA program: Weizenbaum 1966
171 the 2002 paper: Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch 2002
171 “language, as good a trait”: Hauser 1996, p. 32
171 “it is almost universally”: Chomsky 1968, p. 59.
172 “fits beautifully with the conceptual”: Hauser 1996, p. 49
172 “to attribute this development”: Chomsky 1972, p. 97
174 thirteen properties: Hockett 1960
175 cotton-top tamarins: Ramus et al. 2000
176 inability to distinguish those sounds: Kojima 1990
176 biological program for language: Bickerton 1981, 1984
176 twice as many genes as fruit flies: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071214094106.htm.
177 The journal Nature: Bickerton 1996
177 “an overarching concern”: Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch 2002, p. 1572
179 “recursion in animals”: ibid, p. 1578
179–80 Steven Pinker and Ray Jackendoff: Pinker and Jackendoff 2005, Jackendoff and Pinker 2005
180 nine stages: Jackendoff 2002
180 in a 1990 paper: Pinker and Bloom 1990
181 In some small group: Chomsky 2005
181 There do, however: Chomsky 2005. See also Huybregts 2006
184 thought and communication: Bickerton 1990
185 gossip as the engine: Dunbar 1996
185 Fibonacci numbers: Jenkins 2000
185 idealization of instantaneity: Botha 1999
186 “unbounded Merge”: Chomsky 1995
187 Principle of associativity: Perry et al. 1988, p. 364.
10: MAKING UP OUR MINDS
192 “takes information from”: Marcus 2004, p. 114
194 “offline thinking”: Bickerton 1995
195 “Ever since Darwin”: Penn et al. 2008. (For an orthodox view, see Premack 2004.)
196 “but otherwise cognitively”: Hurford 2007, p. 164
196 “for over 35 years”: Pepperberg 2005
197 New Caledonian crow: Hunt and Gray 2003
198 experiments with pigeons: Herrnstein 1979
199 Scrub jays: Clayton and Dickinson 1998, Clayton et al. 2001
200 a series of experiments: Zuberbühler et al. 1999
200 “On hearing first”: Hurford 2007, p. 227
201 those categories didn’t jell: Langer 2006
202 David Premack showed: Premack 1983
203 Japanese macaques: Kawai 1965, Kawamura 1959
203 Bears rifle garbage cans: Pitt and Jordan 1996
203 Aterian points: Shea 2006
204 difference between a concept and a category: Lambert and Shanks 1997, Langer 2006
206 different kinds of memory: for episodic memory, Tulving 2002, Suddendorf and Busby 2003; for semantic memory, Martin and Chao 2001; for procedural memory, Tamminga 2000.
11: AN ACORN GROWS TO A SAPLING
211 twice as big as those of apes: McHenry 1994, table 1
212 Long-continued increase: Tobias 1971
212 The fossil and archaeological record: Falk 1993, p. 226
213 more than doubled, in Neanderthals: Evans et al. 2005
213 For more than a million years: Jellinek 1977
214 hardly more complex than those of Cro-Magnons: Fagan and Van Noten 1971, Best 2003
217 arbitrariness: Saussure 2006
220 between 2 million and 1.6 million years: Roche et al. 2002, Monahan 1996, Larick and Ciochon 1996
221 new and significant information: Dessalles 2008
222 they don’t negate like mother does: Brown 1973
223 figment: Dennett 1991, p. 346
225 the good old-time pidgins: Bickerton 1981, 2008
225 “almost unimaginable monotony”: Jellinek 1977, p. 28
228 “In the forest, Fred”: Bowie 2008
230 Rotokas: Robinson 2006; Ixoo: Traill 1981.
12: THE SAPLING BECOMES AN OAK
232 beginning to use ochre: Marshack 1981
232 some form of trade: McBrearty and Brooks 2000, Feblot-Augustine 1998
233 establishment of neural links: Pulvermuller 2002
233 degrades message quality: Calvin and Bickerton 2000
236 follows the structure of the syntax: Dogil et al. 2002
237 Each language determines: Croft and Deligianni 2001
237 fulfill a specific role: Pinker 1989, Grimshaw 1990
238 Pirahã: Everett 2005, 2007
238 New Yorker: Colapinto 2007
239 Chomskyan linguists launched: Nevins et al. 2007
240 Syntactic Structures: Chomsky 1957
242 “generalized phrase-marker”: Chomsky 1965
244 Generalivists such as Luigi Rizzi: Rizzi 2009
245 il miglior fabbro: Eliot 1998, p. 53
246 the Great Leap Forward: Klein 2002, McBrearty and Brooks 2000, d’Errico et al. 2005
246 negative niche construction: Odling-Smee et al. 2003, Diamond 2005
248 this is not the case: Balter 2005, Voight et al. 2006.
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