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Fighting to the End

Page 57

by C Christine Fair

paramilitary forces, 151–52

  popularity of, 280

  preferred narratives of, 36

  professional publications of, 36–38, 45, 50–51, 85–86, 89–91, 94, 102, 114, 155, 158–59, 166–68, 172, 191–98, 202–3, 225, 227–38, 279–80

  public image of, 88–89

  public opinion of, 88, 198–99

  Punjabis in, 59–63

  Punjab Regiment, 62

  rebuilding of, 65

  reconstitution of after Partition, 57–58

  recruitment into, 31–32, 31–34, 58, 59, 60–61, 62–63, 84–85, 88, 269, 270, 276

  religion and, 59, 81–85 (see also Islamization)

  Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), 168, 169, 170, 195

  revisionism and, 3, 4, 13, 17, 275

  Saudi Arabia and, 83–84

  senior military leadership of, 37–38

  soldiers, 95–100

  status of, 268

  strategic culture and, 5, 8–9, 37–38, 40, 65, 276, 278–82

  strategic depth and, 26, 112–19

  Strategic Plans Division (SPD), 210–12

  system of symbols and, 25–26

  textbooks and, 30

  traditions of, 59–63

  Training and Evaluation Command, 17

  US and, 165–66, 190–201

  values of, 274

  V Corps, 64

  way of war, 1–12

  X Corps, 64

  XI Corps, 64

  XII Corps, 64

  XXX Corps, 64

  XXXI Corps, 64

  Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), 203–4, 205, 229

  Pakistan Frontier Force, 82

  Pakistani Air Force, 84

  Pakistaniat, 90

  Pakistani Bureau of National Reconstruction, 113

  Pakistani identity, ideology and, 67–71

  Pakistan Institute for Peace studies, 289n3

  Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and Transparency (PILDAT), 262, 263

  Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH), 204

  Pakistanis, 2009 survey of, 269, 271–74

  Pakistan military, 259. See also specific branches; assistance from China, 189–90

  day-after planners, 229–30

  democratic parties and, 29–30

  Developmental Control Committee, 218

  discourse analysis, 34

  discourse of, 174–75

  division of, 40, 54–55

  Employment Control Committee, 218

  indigenization of, 58–59

  interviews with personnel, 8

  Joint Services Headquarters, 218

  memoirs of senior leadership, 37–38

  military publications of

  noncommissioned officers (NCOs), 32

  officers, 297n18

  officers in, 58–59

  reconstitution of, 55–56

  training, 56, 59, 95–98 (see also specific institutions); US assistance to, 214

  Pakistan Military Academy (PMA), 32–33, 56, 59, 79, 80, 95–96, 248

  Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz (PML-N), 248, 265

  Pakistan National Movement, 292n4

  Pakistan Navy, 27–28, 296n3

  Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), 29–30, 132, 146, 262–63, 265

  Pakistan Taliban. See Tehreek-e-Taliban-e-Pakistan (TTP)

  Paktika province, Afghanistan, 121, 125

  Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 20

  pan-Islamism, 90

  Panjshir Valley, Afghanistan, 129

  Parcham party, 120, 123–24, 300n20

  Parliamentary Committee on National Security (PCNS), 262–63

  Partition, 9, 11, 25, 27, 40, 46, 48–49, 56, 112–13, 119, 163, 294n12

  Afghanistan and, 112

  of Bengal, 51

  division of armed forces, 55–57

  division of financial resources, 56–57

  division of military supplies, 55–57

  Kashmir and, 294n12

  legacy of, 65

  plan for, 41

  pre-Partition politics, 41–46

  Princely States and, 46–51

  of the Punjab, 51, 53–54

  reconstitution of Pakistan Army after, 57–58

  refugee crisis after, 58, 278

  violence and, 41, 51, 55, 65, 278

  Partition Council, 55

  Party of Islam (Hizb-i-Islami), 125

  Pasha, Shuja, 252

  Pashtuns. See Pakhtuns

  Pathankot, 53, 294n12

  People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), 120, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127

  people’s war, 26, 227, 230, 232–33, 236, 238–43

  permissive action links (PAL), 302–3n3

  Persia, 105, 298n3, 298n6

  Peshawar, Pakistan, 33, 62, 109, 125, 126, 131, 181, 244, 248

  pirs, 73

  Pishin district, 108

  plutonium, 205, 208, 209

  Pokhran Desert, India, 205, 209

  policy discourse, 66

  Political Parties Act of 2002, 132

  Poonch, Jammu, 48–49

  Poonchis, 49

  post-Revolutionary Russia, 104

  Potohar. See Potwar

  Potwar, 61

  Powell, Colin, 219

  Powers, Gary, 181

  praetorianism, 20, 67, 102, 266

  pragmatic elite ideology, 22

  press, 75, 76. See also media

  British, 208

  Islamic values and, 70

  Pakistani, 36, 153, 207

  Pressler Amendment, 138, 156, 193, 208

  Princely States, 46–51, 131, 139. See also specific states.

  proliferation optimists, 222

  proliferation pessimists, 221–22

  Provincially Administered Tribal Areas (PATA), 131

  Provisional Constitutional Order (PCO), 28

  proxy fighters, 26, 219, 220, 226–27, 243

  in Afghanistan, 2, 226

  asymmetric, 250

  doctrine of, 259

  in India, 226

  Islamist militant, 1–4, 16–17, 80–81, 194, 243–51, 268, 275

  LeT proxies in India, 251–52

  nuclear status and, 250–51

  in Pakistan, 226–27

  public opinion, 248–49

  ethnicity and, 271–74, 272, 273–74, 275

  Punjab, 12, 15, 26, 41, 48–49, 61, 111, 130–31, 142, 165, 168, 255, 269, 271–73, 295n19, 298n8

  British Indian Army recruits from, 61, 62

  crisis in, 221

  ethnic insurgencies in, 136–38

  Great Britain and, 106–7

  incorporation into British India, 106

  Indian attack on, 93

  LeT and, 259

  militants in, 295n1

  Partition of, 51, 53–54

  Sikh insurgency in, 16, 243

  Talibanization of, 247–48

  untangling, 51–54

  Punjabi Muslims, in Indian Army, 59–63

  Punjabis, 31, 143, 144, 269, 272–73, 300n23

  2009 survey of, 271–73, 272, 273–74

  in Pakistan Army, 59–63

  Punjabi Taliban, 247–48

  in West Pakistan, 300n23

  Punjab province, Pakistan, 33, 44, 45, 60–61, 137

  Qadir, Shaukat, 151–52

  Qandahar, Afghanistan 108

  Qatar, 2, 84

  Qayyum, Abdul, 82

  Qazi, Javed Ashraf, 35

  Qazi, Shamsul Haq, 114, 234–35

  qazi courts, 247

  Quaid e Azam Group, 77, 78

  Quaid-i-Azam, 42, 78, 79

  Quaid-i-Azam University, sharia faculty in, 70

  Quetta, Pakistan, 26, 33, 56, 100, 107, 125, 162, 248, 251, 295n19, 298–99n9

  Quran, 70, 98–100, 256–57, 304n9

  education and, 82

  Quranic battles, 39

  Qureshi, Hakeem Arshad, 92

  1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldiers Narrative, 94

  Rabba
ni, Barhanuddin, 120, 121, 122, 126, 127

  race, 59–60, 294n13. See also caste martial races; nonmartial races

  Radcliffe, Cyril, 51–52

  Radcliffe Commission, 51–52

  radicalism, 84

  Raghavan, Srinath, 301n4

  Rahe-e-Nijat, 119

  Rahim, Khwaja, 50

  Rahman, Abdur, 108, 109, 291–92n15, 299n11

  Rahman, Inayatur, 246

  Rahman, Sheikh Mujibur, 23, 94, 146, 149

  Rais, Rasul Bakhsh, 103, 158–59, 297n1

  Raiwind, Pakistan, 82

  the Raj, 25, 40–41, 53, 55–56, 82, 108, 112–13, 129, 133, 293n7, 295n19, 296n6. See also British India

  Afghanistan and, 105–6

  assets of, 279

  resources of, 11

  strategic appraisal of threats, 104–5, 279

  territories of, 46

  Rajasthan, India, 205

  Rann of Kutch, 94, 141, 142

  Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 33, 49, 50, 61, 62, 64, 79, 268

  razakars, 47, 151–52

  Razmak, Pakistan, 121

  Reagan, Ronald, 207, 209, 299–300n17

  Reagan Administration, 208, 303–4n7

  recessed deterrence, 221

  Red Fort, attack on, 16, 250

  redistributive justice, 247

  refugees: after Partition, 58, 278

  refugee camps, 128

  Tibetan, 148

  Rehman, Maulana Fazlur, 128

  religion, 81–82. See also Islamization specific religions

  British Army and, 72

  education and, 98

  motivation and, 95–98

  Pakistan Army and, 59

  religious stereotypes, 57

  Report of the Abbottabad Commission, 21

  revisionism, 3, 4–9, 16, 197–201, 279, 281–82, 289n1, 290n3, 291n9

  abandonment of, 22

  appeasement strategies and, 12

  domestic politics of, 23

  India and, 14

  Kashmir and, 18

  Pakistan Army and, 13, 17, 275

  persistent, 8, 19–23, 23, 281–82

  popularity of, 279–80

  reasonable vs. unreasonable, 19–20, 22, 291n10

  strategic culture and, 13–39

  theories of, 290–91n8

  unreasonable, 18–21, 21, 279

  riwaj, 110

  Royal Indian Military College, 72

  Royal Indian Service Crops, 56

  Russia, 54, 60–61, 104, 117, 129, 294n12, 298–99n9, 299–300n17. See also Soviet Union; Afghanistan and, 105–6, 107–9, 111

  expansionism of, 105

  India and, 242, 279

  Kashmir and, 115–16

  Saeed, Hafez, 253

  Salafism, 126, 128

  Sandeman, Robert G., 108

  Sandeman system, 108

  Sararogha Agreement, 246

  Sattar, Abdul, 114, 125, 221

  Saudi Arabia, 11, 26, 83–84, 122, 124, 126, 128, 169–70, 193–94, 226

  India and, 2

  Islamist guerillas and, 103

  Pakistan Army and, 83–84

  Pakistan’s alliance with, 26, 174

  Saur Revolution, 123, 124, 125

  Sayyaf, Abdur Rab Rasul, 126

  Sayyaf, Ghulam Rasul, 120

  sectarian groups, 26, 27, 244

  sectarian violence, 2, 245, 246. See also specific groups

  security, 4–5, 6–7, 8, 17, 166–67

  through alliances, 174–201

  in Balochistan, 117–18

  in frontier region, 117–18

  international, 278–82

  nuclear program and, 202–25

  of Pakistan, 18

  security elites, 175

  security managers, 130

  self-censorship, 36

  September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 71, 129, 135, 138–39, 219, 254, 260

  Shah, Zahir, 116, 120, 121

  Shakai Accord, 245

  sharia, 70–71, 129, 244–45, 247, 248, 271, 272

  Sharia Faculty, Kabul University, 120

  Sharif, Nawaz, 16, 23, 29, 150, 151–52, 153, 211, 259, 265

  Sharif, Shahbaz, 248

  Sharif Commission Report, 75–76

  Shastri, Lal Bahadur, 142

  Sherpao, Aftab Ahmed Khan, 190

  Shia Muslims, 70–71, 84, 101, 169, 170, 244, 245, 247, 254–55, 278

  shrines, Sufi, 77

  Shuja-ul-Mulk (Shuja Shah Durrani), 106, 298n4

  Shura Ittehad-ul-Mujahiden, 245

  shuras, 248, 251

  Siachen Glacier, 137, 151, 153

  Sikhs, 41, 52, 53–54, 58, 60, 68, 72, 106

  Sikh insurgency, 16, 223, 226, 243

  Sikh separatists, 137

  Sikhistan, 137

  Simla Agreement, 150

  Sindhis, 31, 63, 269

  2009 survey of, 274

  Sindhi nationalists, 136

  Sindh province, Pakistan, 12, 33, 44–46, 56, 62, 87, 111, 130–31, 165, 170, 258, 295n19, 298n8

  army recruitment from, 269, 271, 274

  ethno-nationalist insurgencies in, 63

  Great Britain and, 106–7

  militants in, 137

  Singh, Jaswant, 164

  Singh, Maharaja Hari, 14, 48, 50, 52, 92, 139

  Singh, Maharaja Ranjit, 106

  Sino-Indian War, 142, 148, 182, 185, 186, 229, 233

  Sino-Pakistani relations, 11, 148–49, 153, 174–75, 182–200, 281

  Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), 244, 245, 248, 255

  socialism, Islamic, 69

  South Asia, 6, 54, 119, 137, 150. See also specific countries;

  British decolonization of, 14

  security system of, 110–11, 111

  South Asia Foreign Area Officers, 33–34, 292n19

  Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO), 63–64, 114, 180–84, 187, 188, 192–93, 233

  South Waziristan, Pakistan, 89, 109–10, 119, 121–22, 131, 132, 244, 245, 248

  Soviet Union, 104, 117, 123, 180–82, 192, 197, 200. See also Russia

  Afghanistan and, 64, 114–17, 122–27, 133, 137, 169, 192–94, 206–9, 223, 226, 234

  breakup of, 138

  China and, 184–85

  collapse of, 211

  India and, 115–16, 123, 149, 186

  Indo-Pakistani wars and, 143

  invasion by, 182

  Islamist guerilla–movement against, 103

  jihad against, 194

  nuclear weapons and, 217

  Pakistan and, 114–16, 124, 125, 174, 299–300n17

  US and, 149, 194, 222, 299–300n17, 303–4n7 (see also Cold War)

  withdrawal from Afghanistan, 101, 103

  Special Frontier Force (SFF), 148

  Special Services Group, 122

  stability–instability paradox, 222

  Staff College, 56

  Steering Committee, 55

  strategic culture, 10, 13–39, 40, 104, 200, 276, 278–82

  alliances and, 174–75

  British India, 133

  decision-making and, 278–79

  definition of, 24–25

  as heuristic tool, 9

  nuclear weapons and, 11–12, 225

  revisionism and, 5–9, 13–39

  theories of, 24–25

  strategic depth, 11, 134

  Afghanistan and, 103, 279

  definition of, 103

  definitions of, 104

  as geographical concept, 103–4

  Great Britain and, 105, 111

  Pakistan Army and, 26, 112–19

  quest for, 103–35

  Zia ul Haq and, 103

  strategic elite, 104

  strategic environment, 9, 27, 297–98n2

  strategic geography, 111, 297–98n2

  strategic studies literature, 24

  strategy of masterly inactivity, 106

  Students Islamic Movement of India, 251–52

  subconventional warfare, 235, 2
50–51. See also guerrilla warfare

  Sufi Islam, 76–77

  Sufis, 101, 245, 254

  terrorist attacks on, 245

  Sufi saints, 254

  Sufi shrines, 73

  Suhrawardy, Huseyn Shaheed, 145

  suicide bombings, 245, 246

  Sunnah, 70, 257, 304n9

  Sunni Islam, 70, 71, 75, 237

  Sunni Islamist groups, 126

  Sunni Muslims, 48, 70, 84, 169, 170, 244, 246

  Supreme Court, 28, 70, 266

  Swat Valley, Pakistan, 38, 89, 118, 131, 132, 244, 247

  Symington Amendment, 206, 207, 302n2

  Tablighi Jamaat, 82

  Taliban, 89, 101, 117–18, 128–29, 170, 194, 198, 241–42, 300n18

  Afghan, 79, 125, 128, 133, 196, 245, 248, 249, 251, 259, 296n3

  hanging of Najibullah, 127

  Pakistani, 79, 165, 195, 244, 248–50, 266, 296n3, 304n4 (see also Tehreek-e-Taliban-e-Pakistan (TTP))

  Punjabi, 247–48

  rise and fall of, 13, 127–29

  in tribal areas, 246–47

  US and, 246

  talibs, 128

  Taraki, Nur Muhammad, 120, 123–24, 300n20

  tarbiyat (religious instruction) same as terbiyat, 98, 164

  taxes (zakat), 70

  Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi (TNSM), 246, 247

  Tehreek-e-Taliban-e-Pakistan (TTP), 2, 79, 165, 244–50, 252, 266, 296n3, 304n4

  terrorism, 2, 3, 16, 118, 136, 169, 190, 195, 219–20, 245, 255–56, 255. See also specific groups

  Great Britain and, 248, 252

  in India, 190, 217, 239, 250, 252, 259, 275

  Islamist, 66, 79–80, 136, 138–39, 168, 169

  nuclear weapons and, 210, 211

  public opinion and, 248–49

  Punjabi, 247–48

  US and, 71, 129, 135, 138–39, 219, 242–43, 252, 254, 260, 275

  war on terror, 200, 241, 242, 243, 260, 275, 282

  Tet Offensive, 233

  textbooks, 30, 36, 40, 75–76, 198

  Tiwana, Muhammad Nazar, 239

  Treaty of Gandamak, 108

  Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation, 149

  Treaty of Peshawar, 107

  tribal areas, 2, 108, 110, 130–32, 248. See also specific areas; definition of, 131

  post-2001 operations in, 38

  Talibanization of, 247

  Truman Administration, 175, 177, 178–79

  Tsarist Russia, 104

  Turkey, 178, 179, 180, 193, 298–99n9

  “two-man” rule, 212

  two-nation theory, 10, 43–45, 65, 68, 80–81, 89–90, 95, 136, 140, 150, 172–74, 278–80

  U-2 flights, 181–82

  Uban, Surjit Singh Uban, 148

  Uighers, Islamist, 198

  UK Foreign Office, 268

  ulema, 70, 73, 77, 108, 109, 119, 244

  umma, 119, 254

  United Nations (UN), 112, 177, 180, 197. See also United Nations Security Council (UNSC)

  1948 ceasefire and, 50, 140

  Articles 34 and 35 of Charter, 140

  Charter and Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 116

 

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