The Second World War
Page 75
The Balkans was the prelude to Hitler’s attack on Russia. Overtowering all other writers in English on the war in the east (probably in Russian also) is John Erickson, who has published three magisterial works: The Soviet High Command, 1962, The Road to Stalingrad, 1975 and The Road to Berlin, 1983; the last two are over-complex at the operational level but magnificent in their portrayal of the Red Army and the Soviet peoples at war. The reality of the war waged by the Germans, and of its self-defeating nature, is conveyed in A. Dallin’s scholarly German Rule in Russia, New York, 1957. A slight but vital monograph on how devastated Russia’s resistance was sustained is Joan Beaumont’s Comrades in Arms, 1980, which, though devoted to British aid to Russia, also tells much of the far greater American aid effort.
Hitler’s embroilment in Russia, together with America’s entry into the war which shortly followed it, cast the strategic initiative for the first time to the Allied side. Two key monographs which outline Britain’s efforts to make strategy on its own acount are Michael Howard’s The Continental Commitment, 1972, and The Mediterranean Strategy in the Second World War, 1968; the latter frankly acknowledges British reluctance to meet American enthusiasm for a direct assault on North-West Europe. Splendid documentary surveys of joint Anglo-American strategic decision-making from the moment of American entry are provided in two volumes of the great American Official History, E. Snell’s Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941-2, Washington, 1953, and M. Matloff, same title but for 1943-4, Washington, 1959. An associated volume, investigating how particular strategic choices (not all Allied) were made, is Command Decisions, Washington, 1960, edited by K. R. Greenfield.
Because we now know that the making of Allied strategy – sometimes of tactics – was guided by Britain’s ability to read German secure communication (Ultra) and the Americans’ ability to read the Japanese (Magic), it is inevitable that this list should contain several titles on both activities. By far the most important is the first volume of the Official History, by F. H. Hinsley (and others), British Intelligence in the Second World War, 1979; it contains the essential information on the breaking of Enigma, the German cipher system, and on the establishment and early use of Ultra, the intelligence derived from it. Additional but vital technical details are supplied by Gordon Welchman, a pioneer at the cipher-breaking centre at Bletchley, in The Hut Six Story, 1982. Ronald Lewin provided broad but highly reliable accounts of the influence both of Ultra and Magic in Ultra Goes to War, 1978, and The American Magic, New York, 1982; the latter also explains how the Americans complemented Bletchley’s achievement by breaking the Japanese ciphers. Two detailed studies of Ultra in action are P. Beesly’s Very Special Intelligence, 1977, about the Battle of the Atlantic, and R. Bennett’s Ultra in the West, 1979, about the North-West Europe campaign.
American’s war in the Pacific has produced an enormous literature. The most illuminating introduction, for a westerner, is Richard Storry’s A History of Modern Japan, 1960, by a scholar who served as an intelligence officer with the British army in South-East Asia and had taught in Japan before its disastrous decision to make the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. H. P. Willmott’s Empires in the Balance, 1982, surveys the strengths and strategies of the Pacific antagonists before and during the first year of the war and is particularly well-informed on the Japanese side. The best general history of the war in the Pacific, which also finds room for accounts of events in China and Burma, is Ronald Spector’s Eagle against the Sun, 1988, enthrallingly written and brilliantly compressed. It would be unfair not to include a volume from Samuel Eliot Morison’s Official History of United States Naval Operations in World War II; in fact his fourth, Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Operations, Boston, 1949, provides superb and moving accounts of those two crucial battles and is a justification in itself of the official historiography programme. The most important survey of the politics of the Pacific War, which is also a monument of diplomatic history, is Christopher Thorne’s Allies of a Kind, 1978, subtitled ‘The United States, Britain and the War against Japan, 1941-5’ which exactly describes its content.
Japan’s defeat ultimately derived from the disparity between its economic resources and those that the United States could deploy, as Admiral Yamamoto had warned the Imperial government would be the case. An essential survey of the economic factors underlying the course of the war is Alan Milward’s War, Economy and Society, 1939-45, 1977, which encapsulates his many monographs on national wartime economies. A separate large monograph to which I frequently turn for illumination of how economies adapt to the particular needs of war-making is a volume in the British Official Histories, The Design and Development of Weapons, 1965, by M. M. Postan and others; it does not, however, deal with the British contribution to the atomic weapons programme, nor is there, indeed, any single book which satisfactorily covers the development and use of the atomic bomb in the Second World War. The effort to destroy economies by conventional bombing has produced an enormous literature; I particularly value Max Hastings’ Bomber Command, 1987, for its study of the effects of the campaign both on the Germans and the crews who took part. Germany’s reciprocal effort to attack the Allied war economy through its U-boat campaign has also been amply recounted; Peter Padfield’s biography of the admiral who created and directed the U-boat fleet, Dönitz, The Last Führer, 1984, is an outstanding study, as well as a riveting ‘Portrait of a Nazi War Leader’.
I have chosen only one book among the thousands written on the North-West Europe campaign, Chester Wilmot’s The Struggle for Europe; I use the original 1952 edition, though there has been a re-issue. Wilmot, a war correspondent, effectively invented the modern method of writing contemporary military history, which combines political, economic and strategic analysis with eye-witness accounts of combat. Though many of his judgements have been challenged, and some demolished, his book remains for me the supreme achievement of Second World War historiography, combining a passionate interest in events with a cool dissection of the material realities which underlay them. It was the book which first awoke my interest in the war as history and which I come to admire more rather than less as time passes.
Wilmot correctly perceived that the war was one of ‘the big battalions’, an important corrective to the already burgeoning Anglo-Saxon interest in clandestine operations. That interest has swollen since, to a point where irregular and resistance campaigns assume a greater significance than Stalingrad or Normandy. Resistance forms, nevertheless, an essential ingredient of the story of the war. The best general survey is H. Michel’s The Shadow War, 1972, and the best particular study of the most important resistance campaign, that in Yugoslavia, is F. W. Deakin’s The Embattled Mountain, 1971. W. Rings has provided a highly original account of the other side of the story, the German effort to run a European empire, in Life with the Enemy, 1982. The horrors of the blackest side of that empire were first objectively obsessed by G. Reitlinger in The Final Solution, 1953; though the historiography of the Holocaust has since been greatly elaborated, and while his book is largely concerned with the Jews, rather than the many other groups systematically massacred by the Nazi extermination apparatus, it retains, for me at least, a power to shock, to instruct and to warn that later publications lack.
Finally there are the personal memoirs of the war. Among the thousands of soldiers’ stories, I am haunted by one from the Pacific War, With the Old Breed, Novato, California, 1981. E. B. Sledge, now a professor of biology, fought the campaign with the 1st Marine Division. His account of the struggle of a gently raised teenager to remain a civilised human being in circumstances which reduced comrades – whom he nevertheless loved – to ‘twentieth-century savages’ is one of the most arresting documents in war literature, all the more moving because of the painful difficulty someone who is not a natural writer found in re-creating his experience on paper. A brilliant literary achievement, by contrast, is Wartime, 1977, by M. Djilas, the Yugoslav intellectual who belonged to Tito’s entourage, negotiated with Stali
n, fought as a Partisan but eventually fell out with his master and rejected the ‘heroic’ ethos which had driven so many men of passion and ability to create the tragedy of the Second World War. The last two books I have chosen relate the experience of women, that half of the wartime generation whose fate was to bear so much of the tragedy it brought. The Berlin Diaries of Marie Vassiltchikov, 1985, the memoirs of an Anglophile white Russian whom circumstances cast into the heart of Nazi Germany at the outbreak of the Second World War, present an extraordinary picture of human resilience under bombing attack, of the strange normalities that persisted even as the shadows drew in and of the high-spirited disdain for the clods of Nazi bureaucracy that a beautiful girl of noble birth could openly display throughout the wartime years. Christabel Bielenberg, an Englishwoman married to one of the July conspirators against Hitler, felt the same disdain; her account, in The Past is Myself, first published in 1968, of her brave and eventually successful effort to rescue her husband from the Gestapo, shows how narrowly an enemy of the regime, even if a woman, had to measure disdain against deference in preserving her loved ones from destruction.
This list might have been decupled in length; but at fifty books I cut it short. With this extension: in Armed Truce, The Beginnings of the Cold War, 1945-6, 1986, Hugh Thomas has written what is not only an essential guide to the war’s aftermath but also a great work of modern history, meticulous in its use of sources and enthralling in the sweep of its narrative. No history of the war itself, and certainly not mine, can match it in quality or authority.
Index
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ABDA 214-17
Adachi, General Hatazo 245
Afghanistan 497
Africa 265-84
Italian invasion 105, 115, 119-20, 265-6, 287
aircraft
Battle of Britain 73-81
bombers 346-61
carrier 222-3
German 50-1, 76-7, 129-31
UK 76-7, 175-6, 352-3
US 354-5, 359
USSR 129-30
aircraft carriers 208-11, 221-2
Alamein, Battle of 278-9
Albania 122
Aleutian Islands 243
Alexander, Field Marshal Sir Harold 217-18, 259-60, 263, 277, 289, 299-300, 304-6, 422
Amann, Max 21
amphibious warfare 472-3
Andrews, Lieutenant-Colonel L.W. 136-7
Anschluss 31
Antonescu, General Ion 302, 396, 425
Antonov, General A.I. 440
Anvil, Operation 297, 300-1, 315-16
Aosta, Duke of 266-9
appeasement policy 31-2
Ardennes offensive 365-72
armies 3-8, 11-16
arms 8, 14-15, 482-3
Germany 172-3
technology 334-6
Armstrong, J.A. 413
Arnim, General Jürgen von 282-4
Atlantic, Battle of 83-95
Atlantic Charter 459
Atlantic Wall 308-10
atomic weapons 482, 486-7
Auchinleck, Field Marshal Claude 259, 275-7
Aung San 216-17
Austria, annexation of 31
Autumn Mist, Operation 367-72
Avalanche, Opertion 291-4
B-Dienst 87, 90, 419-20
Ba Maw 231
Badoglio, General Pietro 290-1
Bagramyan, Marshal Ivan 431
Bagration, Operation 326, 339, 401-4, 425
Balck, General Hermann 430
Baldwin, Stanley 73, 349
Balkans 301-6, 425-31
invasion of 114-29, 142
see also countries by name
ballistic missiles 484-7
Barbarossa 141-69
decision 108-13, 118, 141-2
Moscow 157-61, 166-8
and Red Army 142-8
Stalin’s reaction 148-54
winter 161-6
Barratt, Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur 55
Battle of Britain 73-81
Bayerlein, General Fritz 328
Beaufre, General André 60
Bedell Smith, General Walter 297
Belgium 49, 52, 56-8, 59-60, 64, 233
Bell, Bishop of Chichester 361
Belotto, Bernardo 493
Beneš, Eduard 31-2
Bennett, Ralph 422
Bergonzoli, General Annibale 119
Beria, Lavrenty 154, 380
Berlin 493
bombing of 357
siege of 436-47
Soviet advance 431-5
Soviet occupation 495-6
Bessemer, Henry 8
Bidwell, S. 305
Billotte, General Gaston 50, 65
Bismarck 173
Bismarck Sea 244-5
Blaskowitz, General Johannes 344, 370
Bletchley Park, Code and Cipher School 88, 132-3, 419
Blitzkrieg 45-72
US style 339, 341
in USSR 339
Blomberg, Field Marshal Werner von 31
‘Blue’ plan 180-3
Bluecoat, Operation 337
Blumentritt, General Günther 59, 311, 320
Blunt, Anthony 417
bocage campaign 325-30
Bock, Field Marshal Fedor von 49-50, 66, 101, 104, 106, 110, 150, 151, 154, 158-63, 166-7, 168, 180-3, 383
Bolero, Operation 261
bomb, atomic 482, 487
bombing, strategic 75, 346-61, 484
Bor-Komorowski, General Tadeusz 337
Boris, King of Bulgaria 118, 302, 425
Bormann, Martin 101, 433, 445, 492
Bose, Subhas Chandra 231, 464
Bradley, General Omar 325, 332, 336, 338, 364, 369
Bramall, Lieutenant Edwin 318
Brauchitsch, Field Marshal Walther von 45-8, 64, 65, 101, 110, 142, 158, 169
Braun, Eva 443, 444
Braun, Werner von 484-6
Brest-Litovsk 151
British Expeditionary Force (BEF) 46, 52, 58, 65-7
Brooke, Field Marshal Sir Alan 53, 66, 259, 260, 277, 312-13, 382
Brooke-Popham, Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert 212
Broz, Josip see Tito Bruce, Captain Henry 319
Buckner, General Simon Bolivar 477
Budenny, Marshal Semyon 143-4, 154-5, 186
Bulgaria 107, 118, 120-1, 302, 425
Burgess, Guy 417
Burma 94, 216-18, 231-2, 462-6, 471
Burns, James MacGregor 455-8
Busch, Field Marshal Ernst von 402
Busse, General Theodor 442
Butcher, Commander 318
Butt Report 351
Byron, George Gordon, Lord 118, 410
Caen 323-5, 327
Caprilli, Captain 12
Carlyle, Thomas 15
Cartwheel, Operation 244-51
Casablanca Conference 244, 262-4, 282, 354-5
Case Red’ 65
Case Yellow’ 46-8
Cassino, Battle of 295, 296, 298-9
casualties 493-5
cavitron valve 484
Chamberlain, Neville 31-2, 64
Chang Chung-hui 230
Chapman, Professor Guy 56
Chennault, General Claire 462, 466
Cherbourg 325-6
Cherwell, Lord (Professor Frederick Lindemann) 351
Chetniks 126, 414-15
Chiang Kai-shek 199-202, 217, 223, 459, 461, 462, 471, 491
China 94, 459
armies 462-3
and Burma 217
civil war 491
and Japan 199-202, 232, 461-4, 471, 490-1
supplies 201, 462-3
Choltitz, General Dietrich von 344
Christian, Gerda 444
Christie, Walter 146, 334, 473
Chuikov, General Vasili 146, 187-9, 192, 440, 441, 445-6
Churchi
ll, Winston Spencer
and A-bomb 482
and army command 259-60, 277
and Atlantic Charter 459
on Clark 300
and Crete 136, 138
and Egypt 120
and Ethiopia 269
and French strategy 55, 65, 69-70
on Freyberg 131
ideology 407
and intelligence 417-22
and invasion of Italy 290-1, 306
and Japanese entry into war 197, 209-11, 258
and Overlord 313, 328, 382
and Pacific war 247
and Poland 459-60, 495
and resistance 405-7
and Roosevelt 257-8, 455-6, 459
and Stalin 147-8, 185-6, 258, 262, 304, 429, 495
and strategic bombing 351-2
strategy 258-64
and supplies 83
and Tobruk 276-7
and US entry into war 258
war aims 454
and Yugoslavia 123
ciphers 87-9, 132-3, 417-23
Citadel, Operation 288, 387-91
Clark, General Mark 281, 293, 294, 296-300, 305-6
Clausewitz, Karl von 423, 467
codes see ciphers
Collier, Basil 214
Collins, General Joe 328
Cologne, ‘Thousand Bomber’ raid 354
concentration camps 237-9
conscription 11-14
Coral Sea, Battle of 224-6
Corap, General André 58, 60, 62
Coventry 422
Crete 106, 129-40, 421
Creveld, Professor Martin van 115, 127
Crimea 159-60, 161, 180-3
Cripps, Stafford 147
Cunningham, General Alan 259, 267-9, 275
Cunningham, Admiral Sir Andrew 273