Stalin

by Simon Sebag Montefiore

  RGASPI 558.11.775.99, Meyerhold to Stalin. On Pasternak, see Mandelstam, p. 148. RGASPI 558.11.725.130, Gidosh to Stalin 2 Sept. 1932. Bedny and Babel: Kaganovich Perepiska, pp. 122, 149.

  Kirov, pp. 179–81: Rosliakov, Kirov to Maria Lvovna.

  This account is based on Yury Zhdanov. Mikoyan, p. 562. MR , pp. 221–2. Artyom Sergeev. Zubok, pp. 112–7.

  Zhdanov: Yury Zhdanov. Martha Peshkova. RGASPI 77: Zhdanov papers. For relationship with Stalin, see RGASPI 558.11.730.2–9, Zhdanov to Stalin, n.d. 1934. RGASPI 558.11.83.143, Kaganovich and Zhdanov to Stalin 23 Aug. 1934, RGASPI 558.11.86.2–16, Zhdanov to Stalin 3 Sept. 1934. RGASPI 558.11.730.18, Zhdanov to Stalin 6 Sept. 1934. “Have you read this new book?” Stalin to Zhdanov, according to Zhdanov’s aide, A. Belyakov, quoted in Rybin, Oktyabr 1941, p. 51. Weak, intellectual, wanted to be agriculturalist, picked books with Stalin, prim, loved flowers: Svetlana OOY, pp. 360–2. Zubok, pp. 112–7.

  RGASPI 558.11.76.113, Stalin to Beria 19 Sept. 1931. Chinsky, p. 47.

  Stalin to Dmitrov, changing history: Dmitrov diary, 7 April 1934, p. 14. A selection of Stalin’s intensely annotated history books includes Kutuzov: RGASPI 558.3.25.2. D’Abernon’s Ambassador of the World: RGASPI 558.3.25.32. Vipper’s History of Greece: RGASPI 558.3.36. Von Moltke, German–French War of 1870: RGASPI 558.3.224. Ivan the Terrible : “Teacher” RGASPI 558.3.350.

  Mamre tree, warm atmosphere: Yury Zhdanov. Sholokhov: Gromov, Vlast i Iskusstvo, p. 144. Jokes, Zhdanov shocked: Artyom Sergeev. “Take to my heels”: Kirov to Chudov in Kirov, p. 181. E. G. Evdokimov to replace Philip Medved as Leningrad NKVD boss: Kirov, p. 161: D. B. Sorokin, Medved’s brother-in-law. Evdokimov: see Robert Conquest, Inside Stalin’s Secret Police, NKVD Politics 1936–1939, p. 25.

  RGASPI 558.11.730.2–9, Zhdanov to Stalin, n.d. 1934. RGASPI 558.11.83.143, Kaganovich and Zhdanov to Stalin 23 Aug. 1934. RGASPI 558.11.86.2–16, Zhdanov to Stalin 3 Sept. 1934. RGASPI 558.11.730.18, Zhdanov to Stalin 6 Sept. 1934. Zhdanov to Stalin: “Before the Congress, Gorky once again tried to criticize the lists even though they’d been agreed with them before . . . he complained Kamenev was not elected to the Secretariat. He did not want to go to the Congress or chair the Plenum. Pity . . . he’s very tired.” RGASPI 558.11.730.1, Stalin to Kaganovich, Zhdanov, Stetsky and Mekhlis 24 Aug. 1934. Kaganovich reported on Gorky’s demands and how the entire leadership of himself, Molotov, Voroshilov and Zhdanov had coped. RGASPI 558.11.742.21, Kaganovich to Stalin 12 Aug. 1934 and RGASPI 558.11.742.28, Kaganovich to Stalin 12 Aug. 1934.

  RGASPI 558.11.730.10, Zhdanov to Stalin Sept. 1934. PB sittings: Khlevniuk, Circle, p. 122.

  RGASPI 558.11.730.37–40, Zhdanov to Stalin 1 Sept. 1935.

  RGASPI 558.11.730.21, Stalin to Zhdanov and Kuibyshev 11 Sept. 1934.

  RGASPI 558.11.730.22, Stalin to Zhdanov, Yagoda and Akulov 9 Oct. 1934.

  Destinations of the leaders are found in Kaganovich’s letter to Stalin of 1 Sept.: RGASPI 558.11.50.64 Kaganovich Perepiska, p. 470. Kaganovich writes from Kiev. Kirov headed out to Kazakhstan, Mikoyan to Kursk, Chubar to the Middle Volga, Kaganovich to Ukraine, Zhdanov to Stalingrad, Voroshilov to Belorussia and Molotov to Siberia. M. D. Borisov was the bodyguard. RGASPI 79.1.170.1,2, 3, Kirov to Kuibyshev 18 Sept. 1934 and 23 Sept. 1934. KR I, p. 61. Kirov, p. 185. RGASPI 558.11.730.23–36, Zhdanov to Stalin 8 Oct. 1934: Zhdanov reported to Stalin that there were bread-collecting problems in the Stalingrad region: “Some workers must be sent to trial there,” he wrote on 8 Oct. The Party leaders down there were “weak.” Kirov to Moscow: Kirov, pp. 183–4. Call and arrival, Stalin in bad mood: Svanidze diary, 14 and 26 Nov. 1934.

  S. Frederick Starr, Red and Hot, The Fate of Jazz in the Soviet Union 1917–80, p. 126. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, pp. 94–5.

  Kirov, p. 187.

  Khlevniuk, Ordzhonikidze, pp. 65–6. Poison: Sudoplatov, pp. 270–1.

  RGASPI 558.11.27.24, Stalin notes, 7 May 1929.

  Rybin, Ryadom, pp. 14–16.

  This account is based on Amy Knight’s excellent reconstruction in her Who Killed Kirov?, pp. 88–99; Tucker, Power , pp. 288–96; Conquest, Great Terror, pp. 43–61, as well as Kaganovich, MR, Svanidze’s diary, Mikoyan’s memoirs, Tak bylo.

  12: “I’M ORPHANED”

  Kaganovich, pp. 71–2. Mikoyan, pp. 316–8. Kirov, pp. 199–201. Tucker, Power, p. 292.

  Eteri Ordzhonikidze. Khlevniuk, Ordzhonikidze, p. 67. Ginsburg in Kirov, p. 197. Kaganovich, pp. 71–2. Mikoyan, pp. 316–8. Kirov, pp. 199–201.

  Tucker, Power, pp. 294, 646. Kissing Kirov: Rybin, Ryadom, p. 88. “Take him away the prick”: Radinsky, p. 312. See also Orlov. Kirov, pp. 200–8, inc. Nikolaev.

  Tucker, Power, pp. 294–6. Vlasik saw Pauker “shaken” when breaking the news about Borisov in Kirov, pp. 205–9.

  On Voikov’s assassination and Stalin’s reaction, see Chinsky, p. 83. On Instantsiya, thanks to Prof. Derek Beales. For verbal orders, see murder of Mikhoels.

  Stalin loved Kirov: Rybin, Ryadom, p. 87; Kaganovich , p. 72. Advice on Beria: Stalin quoted Kirov’s advice against Beria after the war to Mgeladze, p. 178. Larina, p. 291.

  RGASPI 558.11.773.81, Stalin to Chief of Kolkhoz, D. Emalinanova, on case of M. A. Merzlikov, 27 Feb. 1930. Peter Kapanadze, priest and present of 2,000 roubles: Charkviani, p. 45, letter 7 Dec. 1933. Present to Ukrainian boy: RGASPI 558.11.712, Ivan Boboshko to Stalin: “I received 10 roubles from you, thank you.”

  Kirov’s Brain, Zhdanov, Agranov, Yezhov and the funeral: Kirov , pp. 214–5. Tucker, Power, pp. 294–5, 298. KR I, pp. 98–100.

  Svanidze diary, 5–13 Dec. 1934. Mikoyan, pp. 316–8. Kirov, pp. 5–8. Tucker, Power, pp. 301–2.

  Svanidze diary, 5–13 Dec. 1934. Kaganovich, pp. 71–2. Mikoyan, pp. 315–7. Tucker, Power, p. 298. Kirov, pp. 5–7 including Sergo quotation.

  Tucker, Power, pp. 297–9. Svanidze diary, IA , 5–13 Dec. 1934.

  RGASPI 558.11.800.113, Rudzutak to Stalin and Stalin’s reply 5 Dec. 1934. Larina, p. 173.

  Yury Zhdanov: “everything changed.” Also Artyom Sergeev: “Nothing was the same again.” Popovich quoted in Dedijer, Tito Speaks, p. 278. Isakov interviewed by Simonov in Znamya, vol. 5 (1988), p. 69.

  This account of 21 Dec. 1934 is based on the memories of two of the guests: Maria Svanidze’s diary, 23 Dec. 1934; interview Artyom Sergeev. We also have Maria’s poem from the archives and the photographs in two versions. I am grateful to Stepan Mikoyan, Natalya Andreyeva and Kira Alliluyeva, all of whose parents were there, for identifying the characters. Poem: RGASPI 44.1.1.361–6. Photograph: RGASPI 558.11.1653.22.

  13: A SECRET FRIENDSHIP

  Svanidze diary: July, Oct. and 23 Dec. 1934. Anecdotes of Stalin and Zhenya: Kira Alliluyeva. Also Artyom Sergeev and Leonid Redens. Svetlana RR. Richardson, Long Shadow, p. 99.

  Khlevniuk, Circle, pp. 149–50.

  Kirov, p. 222.

  Film: Jay Leyda, Kino: History of Russian and Soviet Film, p. 319. Peter Kenez, Cinema and Soviet Society, pp. 95, 111, 131, 159. Beria in Sergo B, p. 17. Lenin quoted in Figes, Natasha, p. 451 and Soviet Hollywood, p. 477. Medvedev, p. 309. Svetlana OOY, p. 331. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, pp. 93–4.

  RGASPI 558.11.27.88, Stalin as songwriter, 8 July 1935. Alexandrov story: Gromyko, Memoirs, pp. 328–9. Leda, p. 319. Kenez, pp. 95, 111, 131, 158–61. Taylor and Christie, The Film Factory, p. 384, quoted in Figes, Natasha, p. 477. See also Gromov, Vlast i Iskusstvo, G. V. Alexandrov, Epokha i kino, and G. Mariamov, Kremlevskii tsenzor: Stalin smotrit kino in later section on Stalin and cinema post-WW2.

  RGASPI 558.11.727.33, A. Dovzhenko’s conversation with Stalin, with Postyshev, Kosior and Kalinin in attendance, 27 May 1935. Also: Kenez, p. 133.

  Eisenstein: Figes, Natasha, pp. 454–9, 477–81. Kirov and Counterplan: Leyda, p. 290. Kaganovich and Eisenstein: Kenez, p. 138. Stalin on Eisenstein: RGASPI 558.11.804.12, Stalin to Upton Sinclair Oct. 1931. Stalin to Kaganovich 12 Oct. 1931, in Kaganovich Perepiska , p. 101. “Very talented”: Mgeladze, p. 212.r />
  Tucker, Power, pp. 330–1. Brooks, Thank You C. Stalin, pp. 64–6. Stalinism and Kaganovich: KR I, p. 75. Mikoyan p. 31. Cults of leaders: Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, pp. 72–4.

  RGASPI 45.1.803.1, Stalin to F. Samoilova 6 Dec. 1938.

  RGASPI 558.11.730.189, Stalin to Zhdanov and Pospelov 24 Sept. 1940. On K. Gamsakhurdia’s The Leader’s Childhood he wrote: “I ask you to prohibit publication in Russian.” RGASPI 558.11.787.2, Stalin to Zhdanov and Pospelov 24 Sept. 1940. RGASPI 558.11.730.188, Stalin to Zhdanov 14 Sept. 1940. When Old Bolsheviks wanted to publish their memories of his early days, Stalin ordered: “Don’t publish!” RGASPI 558.11.1496.17, Stalin to Mekhlis 21 July 1937. RGASPI 558.11.773.84, Stalin to Mekhlis 1930.

  RGASPI 558.11.717, Stalin to P. M. Vsiliev 3 Dec. 1930 or 1932.

  RGASPI 558.11.786.106, Stalin to Poskrebyshev July 1929.

  RGASPI 558.11.711.182, Stalin to Blokhin 29 July 1925.

  14: THE DWARF RISES; CASANOVA FALLS

  Sudoplatov, pp. 270–1. Tucker, Power, pp. 301–2.

  Kaganovich reshuffle: Rees, p. 132. Khlevniuk, Circle, pp. 172– 7.

  On Khrushchev: Oni, p. 171. KR I, p. 57; KR II, p. 151. Kaganovich, pp. 99–100. Early years: Iurii Shapoval, the Ukrainian Years 1894–1949 in Taubman, pp. 1–17. Pet: William Taubman, Khrushchev, Man and Era, p. 75.

  Yezhov’s rise: M. Jansen and N. Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner, People’s Commissar Nikolai Ezhov 1895–1940, pp. 25–6. RGASPI 17.3.961.61. Yezhov was appointed to check the NKVD staff and Komsomol. He had been an effective NKVD supervisor for Stalin since December 1934 and soon succeeded Kaganovich as Chair of the Party Control Commission.

  “Humane, gentle” Yezhov—Yuri Dombrovsky in Jansen-Petrov, pp. 19–20. A. Polianski, Yezhov: Istoriya zheleznogo stalinskogo narkoma, pp. 1–40. Mandelstam, pp. 324–5. “Small slender man”—Lev Razgon, Plen v svoem otechestve, pp. 50–1. Women on Yezhov: beautiful blue eyes—Vera Trail, unpublished memoirs, pp. 5–11. Nikolai Ezhov, Moscow 1937. Blue-grey eyes, Bukharin’s views and teacher in Central Asia: Larina, pp. 250, 268. On Stalin’s Sukhumi dacha: author’s visit 2002. “Grey-green eyes clever as a cobra”: D. Shepilov, “Vospominaniya,” Voprosy Istorii, no. 4, 1998, pp. 3–25. Size: Jansen-Petrov, pp. 1–11, 14.

  Jansen-Petrov, pp. 1–11, 14, 22. Getty, pp. 156–7. Khlevniuk, Circle, pp. 175–7. Polianski, pp. 40–84. Memory: Stalin to Nutsibidze, Nakaduli, 2, 1993, pp. 96–100.

  Model yachts: Jansen-Petrov, p. 199. “I don’t know a more ideal worker”: I. M. Moskvin quoted in Razgon, pp. 50–51. RGASPI 558.11.89.156, Dvinsky to Stalin 17 Sept. 1935. On Yezhov’s bisexuality, drinking and farting: Yezhov’s confession, FSB 3.6.1, and Frinovsky Case, FSB N-15301.12, in Jansen-Petrov, pp. 18–19. Illnesses: Jansen-Petrov, p. 196.

  RGASPI 558.11.787.6, Stalin to Postyshev on Yezhov’s holiday, 9 Sept. 1931.

  RGASPI 558.11.818.3, Stalin to Yezhov 31 May 1935, and RGASPI 558.11.756.88, Stalin to Kaganovich and Yezhov 22 Sept. 1934. KR 1, p. 115.

  RGASPI 558.11.775. 35, Stalin to Yezhov 23 Aug. 1935.

  Trail, p. 8. Jansen-Petrov, p. 22.

  Jansen-Petrov, p. 16. Polianski, pp. 88–92. KGB Lit. Archiv, pp. 42–4.

  Mandelstam, p. 113. Eteri Ordzhonikidze.

  RGASPI 558.11.83.16, Stalin via Dvinsky to Besanov, Berlin, 5 Aug. 1934.

  Bukharin’s views and Central Asian teacher: Larina, pp. 250, 268. KR 1, p. 115.

  RGASPI 558.11.83.50,51,93 and RGASPI 558.11.84.14,18,66,110, Berlin Embassy and CC telegrams on Yezhov’s health forwarded by Dvinsky to Stalin, Sochi, Aug. 1934.

  “Lonely as an owl” in Sochi: RGASPI 558.11.728.40, Stalin to Yenukidze, 13 Sept. 1933. Sashiko and the photograph, Yenukidze sexually abnormal, two hours late for dinner: Svanidze diary, 28 June 1935. Politburo: Svanidze diary, 11 Sept. 1933. Staying the night: Mikoyan, p. 356. Natalya Andreyeva. Kira Alliluyeva.

  RGASPI 558.11.728.67–107 and 114, RGASPI 558.11.728.40–2, Stalin to Yenukidze 13 Sept. 1933. Conquest, Stalin: Breaker of Nations , p. 189.

  RGASPI 558.11.704.20, Beria, pp. 58–62.

  Plenum: Getty, p. 160–8. Khlevniuk, Circle, pp. 149–50. Kremlin Case: Jansen-Petrov, p. 30. APRF 57.1.273. Yenukidze’s fall: Jansen-Petrov, pp. 31–3. Y. N. Zhukov, “Tainy Kremlevskogo delo 1935 goda i sudba Avelia Yenukidze” in Voprosy Istorii, 2000, no. 9, pp. 83–113. “Something rotten”: Kaganovich in RGASPI 17.2.547 and RGASPI 17.3.963. Bukharin and Yenukidze “swayed” Nadya politically; MR, p. 173.

  Svanidze diary, 9 May and 28 June 1935.

  15: THE TSAR RIDES THE METRO

  Svanidze diary, 29 Apr. 1935.

  “Lonely as an owl” in Sochi: RGASPI 558.11.728.40, Stalin to Yenukidze 13 Sept. 1933. Two hours later for dinner, Sashiko, photograph: Svanidze diary, 28 June 1935. Stronger than the Politburo: Svanidze diary, 11 Sept. 1933. Staying the night: Mikoyan, p. 356. Natalya Andreyeva. Kira Alliluyeva.

  Svanidze diary, 29 Apr. 1935.

  “Russian people are Tsarist”: Radzinsky, quoting P. Chagin, p. 323. Molotov: on Ivan the Terrible in Volkogonov, p. 310. Mikoyan: on Ivan, p. 534. “Stalin Molotov i Zhdanov o vtoroy serii filma Ivan Grozni,” Moskovskie Novosti, no. 37, 7 Aug. 1988, p. 8. Budyonny, Notes, 8. Teacher and Ivan: RGASPI 558.3.350. Bukharin as “Shuisky” in Kaganovich, p. 74. Tucker, Power, pp. 104, 937. Nadir Shah: RGASPI 558.11.27.24, Stalin notes, 7 May 1929. Sergo B, p. 284. A. W. Harriman and E. Abel, Special Envoy (henceforth Harriman-Abel) on Alexander I: p. 178. Charkviani on Nicholas I: p. 35. Eisenstein: Kenez, p. 179.

  Cadillacs: RGASPI 82.2.897.7, Yagoda to Molotov and Molotov and Stalin to Yagoda 15 June 1935. Rolls-Royces: RGASPI 558.11.81.13, Stalin and Voroshilov to Kaganovich, 19 Sept. 1933, Kaganovich Perepiska, p. 350. Spending on luxuries: RGASPI 558.11.27.95, Stalin, 20 May 1936. There were now seven classes of salaries: a People’s Commissar got 500 roubles, Class One officials got 250 roubles, Tucker, Power, p. 324. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, pp. 93–7. Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 402–3. Bukharin’s suit: Larina, pp. 247–8.

  Trud, 30 Dec. 1936. Brooks, Thank You C. Stalin, p. 71.

  Tucker, Power, pp. 284–7. KR I, pp. 84–5.

  RGASPI 558.11.754.101, Stalin and Poskrebyshev to Mirzoian 3 and 21 Apr. 1935, and his reply 23 Apr.

  Khlevniuk, Circle, pp. 154–6.

  RGASPI 81.3.100.91, Stalin to Kaganovich 8 Sept. 1935, and RGASPI 558.11.743.17, Kaganovich to Stalin 13 Sept. 1935. RGASPI 558.11.89.71–6 and 89, Stalin and Salinin to Kaganovich, Yezhov and Molotov 7 Sept. 1935, and Kaganovich to Stalin 10 Sept. 1935. RGASPI 558.11.90.55, Kaganovich to Stalin 23 Sept. 1935. Old farts: RGASPI 81.3.100.91–94. Stalin was also furious that Orakhelashvili was socializing with Yenukidze. Agranov was sending Stalin information on Yenukidze which he distributed to the PB. See also Kaganovich Perepiska, pp. 554–8. Chinsky, pp. 39–47.

  Nadezhada Vlasik. Letters of V. Stalin, Stalin, commandant S. Efimov, K. Pauker, 1932–37, quoted in Vasily, pp. 28–30, 51. On suicides: Getty, p. 21. Tucker, Power, pp. 265, 367. Conquest, Great Terror, pp. 86–7.

  RGASPI 558.11.1743.1, Kaganovich to Stalin and Svetlana 16 Aug. 1935, Kaganovich Perepiska, p. 524. RGASPI 81.3.100.89, Stalin to Kaganovich 19 Aug. 1935. RGASPI 558.11.743.5, Kaganovich to Stalin 22 Aug. 1935. RGASPI 558.11.743.23, Kaganovich to Stalin 31 Aug. 1935. Kaganovich Perepiska, pp. 527, 530, 543. Stalin/Svetlana notes: RGASPI 558.1.5113/558.1.5132.

  RGASPI 558.11.1549.1–41, letters of Stalin and Nadya to E. Djugashvili. The letter quoted in full is RGASPI 558.11.1549.45, Stalin to Keke 24 Mar. 1934. Beria and Keke: Sergo B, pp. 20–1.

  RGASPI 558.1.92.22, Poskrebyshev to Stalin 21 Oct. 1929. RGASPI 558.11.92.82, Stalin to CC 29 Oct. 1935. RGASPI 558.11.1549.48–69, letters to E. Djugashvili from Stalin, Yasha Stalin, Sasha Egnatashvili and other relations, 1934–7. Svetlana, Twenty Letters, pp. 260–2. On her death: RGASPI 558.11.1549.74–92, Stalin’s note for wreath, Tass announcement approved by Poskrebyshev and contents of her house. Stalin’s conversation to Keke: Dr. N. Kipshidze, her
doctor, quoted in Radzinsky, p. 23. Stalin and motherhood, Tolstoy: RGASPI 558.3.353. On her Trotsky comment and gossiping: Sergo B, pp. 20–1. On Stalin and Sasha Egnatashvili, “What do you expect from an innkeeper’s son”: Charkviani, pp. 4–5. “The Rabbit”: Brackman, p. 4. Interview Tina Egnatashvili.

  Real people: RGASPI 558.11.730.39, Zhdanov to Stalin 1 Sept. 1935. Getty, pp. 247–8. Tucker, Power, pp. 366–7. Conquest, Terror, pp. 90–105. Voprosy Istorii, no. 2, 1995, p. 17. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8, 1989, p. 85.

  16: TAKE YOUR PARTNERS; MOUNT YOUR PRISONERS

  Svanidze diary, 7 Dec. 1936.

  From Factionalism to Open Counterrevolution by Nikolai Yezhov, APRF 57.1.273. Yezhov to Stalin, 17 May 1935, Jansen-Petrov, p. 29. Yezhov’s role in the trial: Yezhov’s paper contains ten files on the trial—Jansen-Petrov, p. 46.

  Voplosy Istorii, no. 2 1995, p. 17. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 8, 1989, p. 85. Getty, pp. 247–8. RGASPI 558.11.89.156, Dvinsky to Stalin 17 Sept. 1935.

  Orlov, p. 130.

  Pirozhkhova, p. 61. Larina, pp. 99–100. KGB Lit. Archive , pp. 262–99. Martha Peshkova.

  Martha Peshkova. How do you feel? RGASPI 558.11.720.107, Stalin to Gorky 21 May 1936. Svetlana and Stalin visit Gorky, OOY, p. 327. “On all questions touched in your letter including organization, we need to consult Comrade Stalin. Comrade Stalin is very interested in cultural problems and is personally managing the CC department that deals with this.” RGASPI 73.2.44.21–2, Gorky to Andreyev, Andreyev to Stalin, Stalin to Andreyev 30 Dec. 1935. Stalin corrected Gorky’s articles with Kaganovich. RGASPI 558.11.720.69, Stalin to Gorky, n.d. We visited you at two: RGASPI 558.11.720.120, Stalin, Molotov, Voroshilov to Gorky, June 1936. KGB Lit. Archive, pp. 251–7, 267–75; Yagoda: Averbakh and Kryuchkov testimony, pp. 260–1.

  Serious disease: Chinsky, pp. 99–100. “That creature”: KGB Lit. Archive, p. 273. Tension: Yezhov and Vyshinsky vs. Yagoda. Vyshinsky frequently complained about Yagoda, obviously with Stalin’s backing. GARF 8431.37.70.134, Vyshinsky to Stalin and Molotov 16 Feb. 1935.