The Intimate Bond

by Brian Fagan

  4.James Mellaart, Çatalhöyük (London: Thames and Hudson, 1967), describes the original excavations. A large international research team has been working at the site in recent years. Ian Hodder, The Leopard’s Tale: Revealing the Mysteries of Çatalhöyük (London: Thames and Hudson, 2011), updates the story for a general audience. See also Benjamin S. Arbuckle et al., “Evolution of Sheep and Goat Husbandry,” pp. 139–41. On history houses, see Ian Hodder, ed., Religion in the Emergence of Civilization: Çatalhöyük as a Case Study (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

  5.Jacques Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agriculture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

  6.Klaus Schmidt, Göbekli Tepe (Istanbul: Arkeoloji Sanat Yayýnlarý, 2013).

  7.Surveyed in Brian Fagan, The Long Summer (New York: Basic Books, 2004), chapter 7.

  8.Edmund Spenser, A View of the State of Ireland (annoted by H. J. Todd) (Charleston, NC: Nabu Press, 2012), pp. 496–97.

  9.Muhammed ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, trans. Franz Rosenthal, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004) 2, 2. See http://asadullahali.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/ibn_khaldun-al_muqaddimah.pdf.

  10.E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940). Quote from p. 16.

  11.Ibid., p. 26.

  12.Studies of more recent Nuer happenings: Sharon E. Hutchinson, Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); and Raymond C. Kelly, The Nuer Conquest: The Structure and Development of an Expansionist System (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985).

  Chapter 7: “Wild Bull on the Rampage”

  1.Quotes in this paragraph are from The Epic of Gilgamesh, trans. Maureen Gallery Kovacs (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989). See http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/tab1.htm. Quotes from Tablet 1.

  2.A summary of the Apis cult: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_(god).

  3.Serapeum of Saqqara: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serapeum_of_Saqqara; R. T. Ridley, “Auguste Mariette: One Hundred Years After,” Abr-Nahrain 22 (1983–1984): 118–58, offers an excellent appraisal of this remarkable man.

  4.Ana Tavares, “Village, Town, and Barracks: A Fourth Dynasty Settlement at Heit el-Ghurab, Giza,” in Nigel and Helen Strudwick, eds., Old Kingdom: New Perspectives (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2013), pp. 270–77.

  5.Jeremy McInerney, The Cattle of the Sun (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), pp. 49–54.

  6.Discussion in Ibid., pp. 54–59.

  7.Homer, Odyssey, book 3, lines 6–7.

  8.This section is based on McInerney, Cattle of the Sun, a definitive study of Greek cattle sacrifice. For ancient sacrifice in the Mediterranean world generally, see Anne M. Porter and Glenn M. Schwartz, eds., Sacred Killing: The Archaeology of Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East (Warsaw, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2012).

  9.Plutarch’s famous remark is quoted by McInerney, Cattle of the Sun, p. 36. A description of the sacrificial procedure appears on p. 37.

  10.McInerney, Cattle of the Sun, pp. 4–5.

  11.Discussed by ibid., pp. 173–84.

  12.Aristotle, The Nichomachean Ethics, trans. H. Rackham (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 7:1–2.

  13.Strabo, Geography, trans. H. C. Hamilton and W. Falconer (London: George Bell, 1903), 5, 2, 7. See http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0239&redirect=true.

  14.Marcus Terentius Varro, De Res Rustica, trans. W. D. Hooper and Harrison Boyd Ash (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1934), 2:2, 2:11.

  15.Ibid., 1:3.

  16.This passage is based on K. D. White, Roman Farming (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1970). Also Geoffrey Kron, “Food Production,” in Walter Scheidel, ed., The Roman Economy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp. 156–74.

  17.Adam Dickson, A Treatise of Agriculture (London: A. Donaldson and J. Reid, 1762).

  18.Quotes in this paragraph from Cato the Elder, De Agricultura (160 BCE), trans. W. D. Hooper and Harrison Boyd Ash (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classical Library, 1934), 54:4; on dogs, see Cato, De Agricultura 1:4.

  19.Columella, On Agriculture, vol. 2, books 5–9, trans E. S. Forster and Edward H. Heffner (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954), 6:2.

  Chapter 8: “Average Joes”

  1.Apuleius, The Golden Ass, trans. Sara Ruden (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 4:69. Lucius Apuleius (c. 125–180 CE) was a Numidian Berber who traveled widely. He was a prolific writer, but his most famous work is The Metamorphoses, commonly known as The Golden Ass. Apuleius was active in several cults, which may account for the protagonist’s joining the cult of Isis.

  2.Apuleius, The Golden Ass, 11:257.

  3.B. Kimura et al., “Donkey Domestication,” African Archaeological Review 30, no. 1 (2013): 83–95. On genetics, see B. Kimura et al., “Ancient DNA from Nubian and Somali Wild Ass Provides Insights into Donkey Ancestry and Domestication,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278, no. 1702 (2011): 50–57.

  4.Stine Rossel et al., “Domestication of the Donkey: Timing, Processes, and Indicators,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 10 (2008): 3715–20.

  5.Frank Förster, “Beyond Dakhla: The Abu Ballas Trail in the Libyan Desert (SW Egypt),” in Frank Förster and Heiko Riemer, Desert Road Archaeology in Ancient Egypt and Beyond (Köln: Heinrich-Barth-Institut 2013), pp. 297–338. Also Stan Hendrickx, Frank Förster, and Meryl Eyckerman, “The Pharaonic Pottery of the Abu Ballas Trail: ‘Filling Stations’ along a Desert Highway in Southwestern Egypt,” in Förster and Riemer, Desert Road Archaeology, pp. 339–80. This book is an admirable series of papers on the Saharan donkey trade.

  6.Hans Geodicke, “Harkhuf’s Travels,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 40, no. 1 (1981): 1–20.

  7.Two monographs on the ongoing Theban Desert Road Survey: John Coleman Darnell and Deborah Darnell, Theban Road Survey in the Egyptian Western Desert. Vol 1: Gebel Tjauti Rock Inscriptions (Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications, 2002) and John Coleman Darnell, Theban Desert Road Survey II: The Rock Shrine of Pahu, Gebel Akhenaton, and Other Rock Inscriptions from the Western Hinterland of Naqada (New Haven, CT: Yale Egyptological Seminar, 2013). See also: http://www.yale.edu/egyptology/ae_theban.htm.

  8.On Deir el-Medina’s donkey trade, see A. G. McDowell, Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). Quotes from pp. 86, 90.

  Chapter 9: The Pickup Trucks of History

  1.H. B. Tristram. The Natural History of the Bible (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1883), p. 39.

  2.G. Bar-Oz et al., “Symbolic Metal Bit and Saddlebag Fastenings in a Middle Bronze Age Donkey Burial,” PLOS One 8, no. 3 (2013): e58648 doi. 20. 1371/journal.pone. 0058648.

  3.Wisdom of Sirach, Sir.33, 33:24 (see http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=DIV1&byte=3977004 The Wisdom of Sirach), a work of ethical teachings, was written by the Jewish scribe Shimon ben Yeshua ben Eliezer ben Sira of Jerusalem during the early second century BCE.

  4.Zachariah 9:9.

  5.Judges 5:10.

  6.This passage is based on J. G. Dercksen et al., Ups and Downs at Kanesh: Chronology, History and Society in the Old Assyrian Period (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012); Mogens Trølle Larsen, The Old Assyrian City-State and Its Colonies (Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1976); and K. R. Veenhof, Aspects of Old Assyrian Trade and Its Terminology (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972).

  7.Cécile Michel, “The Perdum-Mule, a Mount for Distinguished Persons in Mesopotamia during the First Half of the Second Millennium B.C.,” in Barbro Santillo Frizell, ed., PECUS: Man and Animal in Antiquity, Proceedings of the Conference at the Swedish Institute in Rome, September 9–12, 2002 (Rome: Swedish Institute in Rome, 2004), pp. 1–20.

  8.E-mail to the author dated March 18, 2013. I am grateful to Dr.
Barjamovic for his advice on Assyrian caravans.

  9.This passage benefits from Mark Griffith, “Horsepower and Donkeywork: Equids and the Ancient Greek Imagination: Part One,” Classical Philology 101, no. 3 (2006): 110–27; and Griffith, “Horsepower and Donkeywork: Equids and the Ancient Greek Imagination: Part Two,” Classical Philology 101, no. 4 (2006): 307–58.

  10.Notably Aesop’s writings. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE) was a fabulist whose fables have achieved lasting immortality. He is said to have been a slave who was later freed, but he may have been a legendary figure. Many of his fables have animal protagonists. A good example is “The Driver and the Donkey on the Cliff”: http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/oxford/486.htm. See Aesop, Aesop’s Fables, a new translation by Laura Gibbs (Oxford: Oxford University Press [World’s Classics]), 2002.

  11.Varro, De Res Rustica, p. 70.

  12.Columella, De Agricultura, p. 67.

  13.T. E. Berger et al., “Life History of a Mule (c. 160 A.D.) from the Roman Fort Biriciana/Weißenburg (Upper Bavaria) as Revealed by Serial Stable Isotope Analysis of Dental Tissues,” International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 20, no. 1 (2010): 158–71.

  14.Bartholomeus Anglicus (c. 1203–1272) was a Franciscan encyclopedist and scholar based in Paris. Quote from his De Proprietatibus Rerum (1240), 1:24.

  15.Robert Graves, The Golden Ass: The Transformations of Lucius (reprint; London: Macmillan, 2009), p. xv.

  16.Anonymous, Special Forces Use of Pack Animals, U.S. Army Special Forces Manual FM3–05.213 (FM 31–27), Washington, D.C. 2004. Quotes from pp. ivff. See www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm3–053–05–213.pdf

  Chapter 10: Taming Equus

  1.This section draws on Pita Kelekna, The Horse in Human History (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), chapters 1 and 2.

  2.Przewalski’s horse. A convenient summary: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przewalski’s_horse; Tarpans: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarpan. See also Dixie West, “Horse Hunting in Central Europe at the End of the Pleistocene,” in Sandra L. Olsen et al., eds., Horses and Humans: The Evolution of Human-Equine Relationships (Oxford: BAR International Series 1560, 2006), pp. 25–47.

  3.For a summary of Solutré, see Fagan, Cro-Magnon, pp. 215–23.

  4.Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, pp. 22–38.

  5.Sandra L. Olsen, “Early Horse Domestication: Weighing the Evidence,” in Olsen et al., eds., Horses and Humans, pp. 81–113. See also David Anthony, “Bridling Horsepower: The Domestication of the Horse,” in Sandra L. Olsen, ed., Horses through Time (Boulder, CO: Roberts Rinehart, 1996), pp. 57–82.

  6.D. V. Telegin, Dereivka: A Settlement and Cemetery of Copper Age Horse Keepers on the Middle Dnieper (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series 287, 1986). See also Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, pp. 32ff.

  7.Bits have generated a huge literature. One summary is David Anthony et al., “Early Horseback Riding and Warfare: The Importance of the Magpie around the Neck,” in Olsen et al., eds., Horses and Humans, pp. 137–56. Also Gail Brownrigg, “Horse Control and the Bit,” in Olsen et al., Horses and Humans, pp. 165–77.

  8.Elena E. Kuzmina, “Mythological Treatment of the Horse in Indo-European Culture,” in Olsen et al., eds., Horses and Humans, pp. 263–70. Discussion in Kelekne, The Horse in Human History, pp. 34ff.

  9.Sandra L. Olsen, “The Exploitation of Horses at Botai, Kazakhstan,” in Marsha Levine et al., Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse (Cambridge, UK: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2003), pp. 83–103.

  10.Stuart Piggott, Wagon, Chariot, and Carriage (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992), chapters 1 and 4, surveys the data.

  11.Ibid., p. 31.

  Chapter 11: The Horse Masters’ Legacies

  1.Edward Shaughnessy, “Historical Perspectives on the Introduction of the Chariot into China,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 48 (1988): 211.

  2.Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, chapter 5, was a critical source for this chapter.

  3.Ibid., chapter 4, provided material for this section; also Piggott, Wagon, Chariot and Carriage, pp. 42ff.

  4.On Kikkuli, see www.flickr.com/photos/exit120/5020830577/.

  5.Peter Raulwing, “The Kikkuli Text: Hittite Training Instructions for Chariot Horses in the Second Half of the 2nd Millennium B.C. and Their Interdisciplinary Context,” http://www.lrgaf.org/Peter_Raulwing_The_Kikkuli_Text_MasterFile_Dec_2009.pdf.

  6.Ann Nyland, The Kikkuli Method of Horse Training (New York: Smith and Sterling, 2008), quote from p. 8.

  7.James Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1906), pp. 147–48.

  8.Robert Drews, Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe (New York: Routledge/Francis and Taylor, 2004), p. 48.

  9.T. T. Rice, The Scythians (London: Thames and Hudson, 1958), is still an admirable general description. See also Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, chapter 3; and David W. Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).

  10.Summarized by Piggott, Wagon, Chariot, and Carriage, pp. 112–14.

  11.Sergei Rudenko, Frozen Tombs of Siberia: The Pazyryk Burials of Iron-Age Horsemen, trans. M. W. Thompson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970).

  12.Quotes in this paragraph from Xenophon, On Horsemanship, trans H. G. Dakyns, (Project Gutenberg, 2008), books 9, 10, 11, 12, at http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1176/1176-h/1176-h.htm.

  13.Ibid., p. 75.

  14.Piggott, Wagon, Chariot, and Carriage, chapter 3, explores this issue.

  15.Ibid., pp. 74–80.

  16.Marcus Terentius Varro, De Res Rustica, p. 391.

  Chapter 12: Deposing Sons of Heaven

  1.Robert Bagley, “Shang Archaeology,” in Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy, eds., The Cambridge History of Ancient China (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 124–231.

  2.This chapter relies heavily on H. G. Creel, “The Role of the Horse in Chinese History,” American Historical Review 70, no. 3 (1965): 647–72. See also Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, chapter 5, where numerous references will be found.

  3.Liancheng Lu, “Chariot and Horse Burials in Ancient China,” Antiquity 67 (1999): 824–38.

  4.Ying-shih Yu, “The Hsiung-Nu,” in Denis Sinor, ed., The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 118–19.

  5.For a lavishly illustrated account of Shihuangdi and his terra-cotta regiment, see Roberto Ciarla, ed., The Eternal Army: The Terracotta Soldiers of the First Emperor (Vercelli, Italy: White Star Publishers, 2012).

  6.Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, pp. 142ff.

  7.Creel, “The Role of the Horse,” p. 658.

  8.René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, trans. Naomi Walford (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1970), provides an account of these expeditions. See also Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, pp. 146ff.

  9.Creel, “The Role of the Horse,” p. 659.

  10.Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, pp. 148–50.

  11.A huge literature surrounds Genghis Khan: George Lane, Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004), is a useful starting point. Quote: J. A. Boyle, trans., Tarikh-i Jahan Gusha, in The History of the World Conqueror (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1967), p. 105.

  12.For a summary account of Kublai Khan, see Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors (London: Thames and Hudson, 1998), pp. 148–53.

  13.Creel, “The Role of the Horse,” pp. 669–71.

  Chapter 13: “Animals Designed by God”

  1.Richard Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), offers a comprehensive account of camel domestication and the controversies associated therewith. This passage is based on his chapters 2 and 3.

  2.A. S. Saber, “The Camel in
Ancient Egypt, Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting for Animal Production under Arid Conditions 1 (1998): 208–15.

  3.Bulliet, The Camel, chapters 3 and 4, covers camel saddles, but there are references to different types throughout his book.

  4.Ibid., chapter 4.

  5.Quoted from ibid., p. 95.

  6.For a brief summary of Petra, see Andrew Lawler, “Reconstructing Petra,” Smithsonian 38, no. 3 (2007): 42–49.

  7.Discussion in Bulliet, The Camel, chapter 5.

  8.Andrew Wilson, “Saharan Trade in the Roman Period: Short, Medium- and Long-Distance Trade Networks,” Azania 47, no. 4 (2012): 409–49.

  9.This section is based on E. W. Bovill and Robin Hallet, The Golden Trade of the Moors (London: Marcus Weiner, 1995).

  10.N. Levetzion and J. F. P. Hopkins, eds., Corpus of Early African Sources for West African History (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 118.

  11.Ghislaine Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), chapter 5.

  12.Mardochée Aby Serour (1826–1886) was a rabbi from Akka, Morocco, who did much to open up Saharan trade routes to non-Muslims during the nineteenth century. He was an enthusiastic botanist and plant collector. Quote from Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails, p. 221.

  13.Ibn Battuta (1304–1377) was a Moroccan explorer of Berber descent. Quote from Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails, p. 226.

  14.Michael Benanov, Men of Salt (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2008). See also

  http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0528_030528_saltcaravan.html.

  15.Analysis in Bulliet, The Camel, chapter 7.