Dark History of the Tudors: Murder, Adultery, Incest, Witchcraft, Wars, Religious Persection, Piracy (Dark Histories)

by John, Judith

  Henry was very familiar with the Bible from his religious education and grasped on to a passage from Leviticus …

  And if a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an unclean thing: he has uncovered his brother’s nakedness; they shall be childless.

  Henry now had what he saw as the word of God that their marriage should never have taken place. Treating this as grounds for annulment – divorce being forbidden by the Catholic Church – Henry took his proof to the current Pope, Clement VII. An ecclesiastical court met in England to discuss the issue, but was recalled to Rome after two months, the matter still up for discussion. However Henry tried, he was unable to put enough pressure on the Pope, who was virtually a prisoner of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and, unfortunately for Henry, Catherine’s fond nephew.

  Pictured here is Pope Clement VII. He forbade Henry’s annulment, supporting Charles V – nephew of Catherine of Aragon and son of Joanna the Mad – over Henry.

  CHARLES V

  CROWNED KING OF Spain (then Castile and Aragon, plus kingdoms in Italy) in 1516, then Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria in 1519, Charles V became the most powerful ruler in Europe within the space of a few years. As heir to the Hapsburg, Valois-Burgundy and Spanish dynasties, Charles retook parts of France as well as extending his empire throughout the New World. A fervent Catholic, he opposed Henry’s break from the Church as well as the Lutheran reforms in Germany, eventually abdicating his thrones when his health failed. He had the famous ‘Hapsburg jaw’ (see right), possibly caused by inbreeding.

  Henry’s motives were led by his growing lust for another woman, plus what he saw as his kingly duty in providing a male heir …

  Not one to let an insignificant person like the infallible head of the Church tell him what to do, Henry persevered in getting the annulment he so desired. This would lead to him defying the Church he once believed in so devoutly and becoming supreme head of the Church of England in 1534. Henry’s motives were led by his growing lust for another woman, plus what he saw as his kingly duty in providing a male heir for England after his death. But Henry had not expected to face the combined refusal of both the clergy and Catherine. Her stubborn nature now revealed itself and her strict Catholic upbringing meant that divorce was not an option for her. Catherine refused to acquiesce to Henry’s demands. The fact that she would have to leave England in shame also played a part in her defiance. While some sympathy was with Henry for naturally wanting a son, most sided with the wronged Queen against the lascivious King and the object of his fancy, Anne Boleyn.

  Marriage Wrecker, Church Breaker

  Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, one of Henry’s favorite diplomats. She attended Mary Tudor after her marriage to Louis XII at the French court. Described as accomplished, opinionated and witty, she drew the eye of the King soon after being recalled to the English court in 1521. Anne, knowing that she had attracted Henry’s attention, played her part carefully for years, flirting with him and making her interest clear, but never overstepping the grounds of propriety. Anne refused to settle for being merely a mistress, like so many before her. She often withdrew from court to spend time at Hever Castle, her childhood home, but kept up a correspondence with Henry so that she was always in his thoughts.

  While some sympathy was with Henry for naturally wanting a son, most sided with the wronged Queen against the lascivious King

  A love letter from Henry VIII to Anne Boleyn, circa. 1528, when Henry was still hoping for an annulment from Rome. The romantic King writes that his ‘heart will be dedicated to you [Anne] alone’.

  A lover of courtly romance, Henry sent Anne letters, poems and tokens of affection. The lengths he was prepared to go to in order to marry Anne shows the thrall she had over the amorous King. An ambitious and intelligent girl, Anne held out for the prize of being Henry’s Queen and would not settle for anything less. Henry even made Anne the Marquess of Pembroke, the first woman to ever have been given a peerage in England. His devotion to making Anne his Queen was clear, despite the majority of public sympathy being firmly on Catherine’s side and the disloyal Anne being widely unpopular.

  THE OTHER BOLEYN GIRL

  PRIOR TO MARRYING Anne, Henry had enjoyed the favours of her elder sister, Mary. Both girls had spent time in the French court of King Louis XII, where they had learned the arts of coquetry and seduction. Mary had been Henry’s mistress for around five years after leaving the French court amidst rumours of a possible affair with Francis I (Louis’ successor) and several other courtiers. However, it was Anne that Henry married, after she drove him to distraction with her flirtatious ways.

  A scandalous rumour spread around the court that Henry had bedded both sisters and their mother. When Henry was told of this, his response was ‘Never the mother!’

  The British artist William Hogarth painted this picture in the eighteenth century. Entitled ‘Henry VIII (1491– 1547) introducing Anne Boleyn at court’, we see a besotted-looking Henry guiding Anne towards a doubtful – and perhaps concerned – Cardinal Wolsey.

  This illustration depicts Thomas Cranmer, the man who married Henry and Anne after announcing the King’s first marriage null and void. Becoming Archbishop of Canterbury in 1532, Cranmer was executed in 1556 by Catherine’s daughter, Mary I.

  Taking his revenge on Pope Clement VII for not permitting his annulment, here Henry VIII is seen trampling on the Pope. The message is clear; Henry now answered only to God.

  In 1531, Henry decided that enough was enough. He had lived a virtually separate life to Catherine for over a year and Anne was still holding out on him.

  RELIGION IN ENGLAND

  ENGLAND UNDER HENRY had always been a devoutly Catholic country. (Henry himself had even been titled Defender of the Faith in 1521, when he attacked Luther’s reforms.)

  Most people went to weekly mass and prayed, often to icons of Jesus and Mary or the cross. People prayed to icons of saints and the holy family, and transubstantiation (the symbolic bread and wine given out during the mass being turned into Christ’s body and blood) was believed to be fact. Anyone who disputed this could be accused of heresy.

  Perhaps Henry’s biggest achievement – if you can call it that – was managing to adapt such orthodox beliefs to a new faith.

  Because Charles V had virtual control over the Church and Pope, there was no way that an annulment from Catherine, Charles’ aunt, would be permitted.

  Tired of waiting for other people to decide his fate, he banished Catherine from court and set Anne up in the Queen’s quarters. In 1533, he and Anne were married in secret, despite Henry still being legally married to Catherine. Anne quickly fell pregnant, which Henry saw as proof that he had made the right choice, whatever the consequences. This meant they had to seal the deal and a second, official wedding took place on 25 January 1533. Shortly after, Thomas Cranmer, who had recently been appointed Archbishop of Canterbury after the uncooperative Archbishop Warham died in 1532, performed the ceremony and also presided over a court of clerics that ruled Henry’s marriage to Catherine as officially null and void. Catherine was given the title of princess dowager on account of being Arthur’s widow and the triumphant Anne was crowned Queen Consort on 1 June.

  Pictured here, Martin Luther shared Henry’s dislike of the papacy, but for different reasons. It was Luther’s abhorrence of the idea that one could buy one’s way into Heaven that prompted his split from the Catholic church in 1517.

  Splitting the Church

  The complex business of the English reformation and break with the Catholic Church of Rome was credited as being a result of Henry’s desire to marry Anne Boleyn. While this was certainly the catalyst, Henry’s political manoeuvrings and eye for power may well have resulted in this breach happening sooner or later. Because Charles V had virtual control over the Church and Pope, there was no way that an annulment from Catherine, Charles’ aunt, would be permitted. If the head of the church would refuse him, Henry, believing himself to be right, felt he had n
o other option than to take control of the church himself. More so than any other monarch, Henry VIII truly believed himself to be God’s representative on earth, answerable only to God with authority that outranked even the Pope.

  THE FIRST REFORMER

  MARTIN LUTHER WAS a German monk who first began stirrings of discontent within the Catholic Church in 1517. He was strongly opposed to the selling of indulgences to ensure your soul went to heaven after your death, no matter how much you had sinned. Luther also wanted to do away with some of the sacraments that mystified religion and make it accessible for every man and woman who believed in Jesus Christ, no matter how poor they were. Luther felt that the Church had lost sight of its origins and he wanted to return to a purer religion based on faith. Immediately condemned as heretical, Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521. His reforms became widely known all over Europe (thanks to developments in printing) and were discussed in many universities, including Cambridge. His translation of the whole Bible into German, making it accessible to everyone, was published in 1524.

  This grant bears the great seal of Henry VIII. It is one example of the common occurrence of Church lands being sold off to nobles, with the monies earned going straight into Henry’s coffers.

  Henry began attacking the Church. He first reintroduced the law of praemunire, which meant that anyone supporting papal bulls or jurisdiction (which had been classed as a foreign power and therefore against England) was acting against the monarchy. The sentence for this was death. The Submission of the Clergy meant that church laws could only be made with permission from the King in case any religious acts were contrary to those made by the monarchy. Similarly, the Supplication Against the Ordinaries further removed church powers. The Absolute Restraint of Annates Act meant that people were forbidden to send money to the Pope. The title of Pope was replaced with Bishop of Rome. Slowly but surely, Henry was stripping away the power of the Church and replacing it with his own power. In 1534 Henry drove another nail into the coffin of the Catholic Church. He announced the Act of Supremacy, by which Henry officially broke with Rome and became Supreme Head of the Church of England. The Act states that:

  …the Kings Highnesse is the onely Supreame Governour of this Realme, and all other his Highnesse Dominions and Countries, as well in all Spirituall or Ecclesiasticall things or causes…

  …and goes on to ask for allegiance to the King only. The Act is often seen as the beginning of the reformation, although by taking steps towards this final action and using Parliament to announce the Acts, Henry cleverly made it appear to be what England wanted. This was no easy feat in a country that had been Catholic since Medieval times. While for many this change was in name alone, there was a gradual shift away from the worship of deities, icons and shrines that had been an integral part of everyday religious life.

  ERASMUS

  DESIDERIUS ERASMUS OF Rotterdam was a humanist and Catholic priest who translated the bible from its original into Greek and Latin editions. He was a leading influence of Luther and other reformers, but never personally took such a strong line. A confirmed Catholic, Erasmus wanted to stop misdemeanors such as paying for indulgences and corruption within monasteries. He made no attacks on the Church and did not support Luther, despite the monk asking for Erasmus’ commitment, for fear of the violence and disarray he thought the Reformation would bring.

  The Battle of Pavia between Spanish-Imperial troops supported by England against the French largely decided the Italian Wars of 1521–26. Francis I was captured by the Spanish and forced to surrender. This picture shows Charles V’s troops rapidly advancing.

  Thomas Wolsey is shown here in his distinctive red Cardinal’s robes. He became Cardinal in 1515, as well as being Henry’s chief advisor until his downfall.

  Typical of Henry, the King also introduced the Treasons Act, making it punishable by death to refuse to swear the Oath of Succession, which stated that any children he had with Anne were the rightful heirs to the throne. As well as gaining power, Henry would gain capital. A huge source of income, the Church was paid taxes with which to keep the monastic houses afloat. Cromwell was significant in the Valor Ecclesiasticus, a survey of how much wealth and property was owned by the Church. Henry began to tax the Church on the basis of this survey – a tax of up to ten percent of all earnings. The Reformation Parliament covering these Acts ran from 1529–36. Officially nothing to do with Henry’s marital status, it started as a hunt for sins against God within the monasteries, such as adultery, homosexuality, theft and drunkenness. Henry also ordered that all monastic houses of less than £200 a year were to be closed. The dissolution of the monasteries had begun.

  Despite his split from the Church and destruction of the monasteries, Henry remained to his last a devout man, fully believing most Catholic theology. While his reforms led to much bloodshed, it could be said that Henry aimed to keep the origins of Catholic faith while stripping away its vanity and superstitions. However, one must not forget that he had a personal investment in the reformation and profited handsomely from it. Henry VIII was excommunicated by Pope Paul III (Clement VII’s successor) in 1538.

  All the King’s Men

  Thomas Wolsey first entered Henry VII’s court as Royal Chaplain. On Henry VIII’s coronation he became an almoner (a distributer of alms or money to the poor). By a mixture of personal ambition, charisma and diplomacy, Wolsey quickly rose to be one of Henry’s most powerful advisers. His rise was also aided by the fact that Henry had little interest in the detailed ins and outs of administration on which his father had kept a close eye. Henry VIII insisted on making all of the decisions, but he wanted things presented to him simply rather than spending hours bogged down with bureaucracy. Careful to follow the whims of the King, Wolsey adapted his anti-war position when he saw that Henry was determined to wage war on France.

  Despite his split from the Church … Henry remained to his last a devout man, fully believing most Catholic theology.

  Pope Paul III finally excommunicated Henry in 1538. Having gone against the Catholic Church many times, the final straw was when the shrine of St Thomas Becket of Canterbury was destroyed that same year during the dissolution of the monasteries.

  Here we see the opulent Hampton Court Palace from the opposite bank of the River Thames. Henry spent a lot of time at Hampton Court, which appealed to his love of Renaissance architecture. He extended the Palace in this style.

  Wolsey’s flexibility and diplomacy aided his rise from a member of Henry’s Privy Council to Lord Chancellor in 1515, as well as Archbishop of York, then Cardinal, although many others were not happy that a commoner had been given so much influence. Prominent in both the council and Church, Wolsey’s diplomatic skills were tested and proved competent during negotiations with France. If there was to be war, Wolsey would make sure it was won by the English. Learning from the first abortive attack on France in 1512, Wolsey made sure that England’s second attempt to win back French territory in 1513 was successful. The men were properly housed and fed, enabling them to fight well. Following England’s victory at Tournai, Wolsey successfully negotiated peace with France, whereby Louis would marry Mary and England would keep the hard-won city of Tournai.

  LIVING LIKE A KING

  WOLSEY HAD ALWAYS liked the finer things in life and was responsible for some fabulous properties being built – Hampton Court in particular. Begun around 1514, Wolsey rebuilt the existing manor into an extravagant pleasure palace, with rooms for the royal family as well as himself. Foreign ambassadors would visit and the aim was for them to be awed by the splendour of such a rich and beautiful establishment. Henry took over the palace in the late 1520s, changing and adding quarters. By the time he died in 1547, Henry owned over 60 properties, but Hampton Court Palace remained his favourite.

  Perhaps one of his most delicate tasks was to make alliances between England and France and England and Spain at the same time. With Charles V now ruling a large section of Europe, and leading a war against France,
it was now in England’s best interest to strengthen this alliance. Henry tried to take the French crown back for England when Francis was captured during the Battle of Pavia in 1525.

  Henry was eager to invade France once again, but previous attempts had yielded little and cost a lot. Suffering from a lack of funds, Wolsey tried to raise money for his power-hungry King. He set up a highly controversial tax called the Amicable Grant in 1525. Despite its name and being called a benevolence, it was basically an enforced loan to the Crown. Wolsey did not have the backing of Parliament, so the Grant was unstable from the beginning. The theory was bad enough, but in practice it was a disaster. Riots were violent and widespread. In the face of such enormous opposition, Henry had to back down. Claiming that the Grant had not been his idea, he left Wolsey to clean up the mess.

  Trying to curry favour, Wolsey gifted Henry his home of the sumptuous Hampton Court Palace.

  His many enemies loved seeing him out of favour, but Wolsey managed to save his job and neck. Trying to curry favour, Wolsey gifted Henry his home of the sumptuous Hampton Court Palace. The Cardinal then worked tirelessly to secure the annulment for Henry to escape his marriage to Catherine, but his pressure on the Pope was not as threatening as Charles V’s. Wolsey was unsuccessful and Anne Boleyn struck another nail in his coffin when she turned against him. Believing him of deliberately delaying the King’s annulment, Anne and the Cardinal’s many enemies plotted against him, leading to his arrest in 1530.

  However, despite such an extravagant gift from his loyal servant, Henry ordered Wolsey to be sent to the Tower to answer claims of treason. On the journey, the stress of trying to please his thankless King grew too much for the Cardinal and he died on 29 November 1530.