by John, Judith
The aggrieved King had a point to prove and over 220 people were put to death for their defiance, with many of their corpses prominently displayed to warn others.
… the spirited character that Henry had so admired before they were married did not seem so attractive now that she was Queen.
In the end, the pilgrims were unable to end the dissolution of the monasteries or the desecration of relics and shrines. However, while the pilgrims were crushed, public support for their cause and the traditional Church remained and would cause turmoil for later Tudor monarchs.
The New Queen
With Anne already pregnant, the early signs for this second marriage were promising. Anne was not a great beauty but was sexy, intelligent and certainly knew how to work her assets (Henry was thought to be especially fond of her figure). Now carrying Henry’s child, it seemed as if the future of the Tudor monarchy was once again secure. On 7 September 1533, Anne gave birth to Elizabeth, who would one day rule England herself. As the 1533 Act of Succession had made Mary – Henry’s daughter by Catherine – illegitimate, Elizabeth was now heir to the throne of England. Anne had quickly proven that she could bear healthy children, but Henry still did not have the son and heir he had dreamed of. Also, his new bride was proving to be a handful. Forthright and tactical, the spirited character that Henry had so admired before they were married did not seem so attractive now that she was Queen.
Always an arrogant woman, believing herself to be everything Henry could ever want, Anne paid no heed to the callous way Henry had dispatched Catherine from his life. Her lifestyle and court was even grander that Catherine’s. The exacting Queen had over 60 personal ladies-in-waiting and hundreds of servants to attend to her every whim. During their courtship, Henry had showered Anne with gifts and she felt that she had been born for this extravagant lifestyle. Henry even made Anne a peer, making her the Marquess of Pembroke in 1532. Yet her imperious nature and sharp tongue would not earn Anne any loyalty among her servants or her equals.
Her cause was not helped by the fact that Anne had two miscarriages in quick succession. She fell pregnant again in 1535 and the couple hoped for the best. However, fate was about to turn against her. Catherine of Aragon died on 8 January 1536. Anne and Henry celebrated, united again in their joy. But theirs was a fleeting happiness. On 29 January, the same day of Catherine’s funeral, Anne miscarried a male child. She put it down to stress caused by Henry’s fall during a jousting match, but in Henry’s eyes only Anne was to blame. Henry had truly loved his second wife and had feelings for her still, but now felt sure that he would never have a son with Anne and began to plot her removal by any means necessary.
Anne’s letter to Cardinal Wolsey thanking him for supporting her marriage to the king. Ever the politician, Anne writes that she is in Wolsey’s debt, which she will repay when in a position of power.
There are many rumours about Anne Boleyn’s appearance, including her having warts, double chins and the infamous sixth finger! However, this portrait shows us an attractive woman with the striking eyes and ‘pretty ducks’ (breasts) that Henry was so fond of.
Anne Boleyn swoons following the news that she has been condemned to death in this painting by French artist Pierre-Nolasque Bergeret, circa 1814.
Not letting his true feelings be known to his wife, who may still bear him an heir, Henry discussed his situation with his trusted advisors, turning to Cromwell for a solution. Anne had made herself many powerful enemies during her short time as Queen, including Charles Brandon, the Duke of Suffolk and her uncle, Thomas Howard, the Duke of Norfolk, who had earlier supported the union. There were very few people willing to go out on a limb to support the new Queen. With one troublesome divorce already behind him, Henry was correct in thinking that a second would be much harder to explain away. He was also sure that Anne would not bear the insult quietly. There had to be another way to get rid of Anne while keeping public support with the King.
The Case Against the Queen
Anne’s strong willed, flirtatious nature, which Henry had once found so beguiling, now contributed to her downfall. Led by Cromwell’s machinations, two separate accounts came to light of Anne being unfaithful to Henry. The first, Sir Henry Norris, refused to admit to these claims, but Mark Smeaton, a court musician and music teacher, admitted to having an affair with Anne after she seduced him. It is possible that he was tortured into his confession (an ordeal that Norris, as a nobleman, would have been spared), however he did repeat its truth on his execution for treason, perhaps knowing that he was doomed to death. But the case against Anne did not end there. In total, five men were executed for having dallied with the Queen, including George Boleyn, Anne’s own brother. Three more were accused but escaped death.
EXECUTIONS, TUDOR STYLE
TOWER HILL WAS the official execution site of the Tower during its time as a prison. The accused were taken from their cells up to the site on Tower Hill, where they were met with the block and an executioner armed with an axe. It was also likely that they would have to pass through the jeering crowds who had gathered to watch their death. Executioners were not paid for their work by the crown. Instead, they depended on tips from the prisoners. The amount they were paid could result in a far quicker death, depending on how sympathetic or experienced the axe-wielder was. Noblewomen, such as Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard and Lady Jane Grey, were executed on Tower Green, away from the common criminals.
Anne’s short marriage ended at Tower Green, where she was executed by sword; a quicker and more merciful death than the axe. The executioner wields the heavy sword with two hands, which generally meant that a single stroke was enough to sever the neck.
This plaque forms part of the poignant memorial at Tower Hill, which marks the spot of those who died there. Many were executed under Henry VIII, including Fisher, More and Cromwell.
It was now Anne’s turn to face a trial. The ridiculous nature of many of the claims has shown just how determined Henry was for her to die. Any affection he might once have held for his wife and the mother of his child had died and Henry was eager to move on, having already chosen a replacement for Anne. Claims that she had used witchcraft to seduce the King and other lovers were rife and she was hit with claims of adultery, incest and witchcraft before being charged with high treason and taken to the Tower. There were even rumours of her having poisoned Catherine of Aragon and plotting to kill Henry’s children by other women. The nail in her coffin was a charge (with no supportable evidence) of plotting with her lovers to kill the King in order to marry Henry Norris. Henry VIII was clearly leaving nothing to chance.
On 14 May, Thomas Cranmer, earlier one of Anne’s supporters, declared their marriage to be dissolved. Five days later Anne was executed on Tower Green. Declaring her absolute innocence to the last, Anne blessed her faithless husband and asked God to have mercy on her maligned soul. She escaped the horrific death of burning, which was often administered to women accused of treason, and instead was swiftly dispatched by a sword. Still protesting her innocence and love for Henry, her ‘little neck’ was no match for the sharp blade. The rumours of witchcraft were given weight when the executioner lifted high her disembodied head, the eyes and lips moved in death.
While many of the allegations against Anne seem spurious, the sheer number of men involved in her life means that Anne is often viewed as a promiscuous whore. Whatever the truth, her wretched death and the reasons given for it were certainly convenient for Henry. Although this marriage caused the split from the Catholic Church and did not result in a long love or the desired male heir, its consequence was one of England’s most famous and influential monarchs – Elizabeth I.
Just as with his marriage to Catherine, Henry needed a dispensation to marry Jane, the likely reason she was distantly relation of one of his previous wives.
Jane Seymour, pictured here, looks sweet and demure but it is rumoured that she flaunted a locket from Henry in front of Anne, who received a similar piece when Henry courte
d her.
Jane Seymour was the only one of Henry’s wives to give him what he wanted most, a son and heir. Edward is pictured here as the Prince of Wales, a title he was given just a week after his birth. Even though he is not yet King, Edward looks every inch the monarch.
This reunion was no easy task, as Henry had viciously disowned Mary. She naturally supported her mother and was sent away from court after their divorce.
Third Time’s the Charm
After his tormented and unsatisfying marriage to Anne, Henry stayed well away from anyone intelligent and forthright. He had learned his lesson. Jane Seymour had been one of the court’s ladies-in-waiting, serving both Catherine and Anne before their elimination. Henry had long found Jane attractive. He admired her gentle ways and modest, charming attitude; a stark comparison to the seductive Anne and the obstinate Catherine. Jane was also not very educated or political, preferring to involve herself in domestic issues rather than man’s work. It seemed that in Jane, Henry would finally have the ideal wife, someone more like his adored mother.
The couple were engaged on 20 May 1536, the very day after Anne’s execution, and were married just ten days later. Jane strove to reunite Henry with his daughter Mary after he had classed her as illegitimate following the breakup with Catherine of Aragon. While the line of succession was not yet restored, Jane did manage to reconcile the two somewhat and she became known for her compassion. This reunion was no easy task, as Henry had viciously disowned Mary. She naturally supported her mother and was sent away from court after their divorce.
On 12 October 1537, Jane gave the King the son and heir he had longed for. Christened Edward, the boy’s birth was cause for much celebration and joy. Henry finally had his ‘great matter’. Yet the joy was curtailed soon after, for on 24 October Jane succumbed to the infection – possibly puerperal fever – that had followed her difficult labour and died. Henry was truly saddened by her death. Perhaps because she did not argue with him, perhaps because she gave him a son and perhaps because he really did love her, Jane is thought to be Henry’s favourite wife. He ordered 12,000 masses to be said for her soul, wore black for three months and, although he and his advisors soon began the search for a new wife, did not marry again for three years.
Jane was the only one of Henry’s wives to receive a Queen’s funeral and on his death they were buried together at Windsor Castle, which he himself requested in his will. It is said that some of Henry’s last words were of Jane, the only wife to give him what he needed. However, if she had lived, who knows what fate might have awaited her from her fickle husband?
The King’s Beloved Sister
Eager for Henry to make a politically advantageous marriage with his next wife now that he had sired at least one son, Cromwell and his advisors suggested Anne of Cleves. With alliances with France and Spain ever shifting and Francis I of France and Charles V having recently signed a peace treaty, forming an alliance with Germany was seen as a sensible move. The Duke of Cleves, Anne’s brother, was a potential ally against the threat of Rome and the might of the Catholic Church should they choose to contest Henry’s violent treatment of the monasteries. Hans Holbein painted both Anne and her sister, Amalia, as the next potential wife of Henry and Queen of England. While his portrait of Anne is thought to be overly flattering, many see it as realistic, showing her to be sweet-looking and attractive. Much was made of her charm and modesty, but she was unsophisticated, spoke almost no English and had no skills in music, dancing or other courtly attributes.
TUDOR HEALTH AND CHILDBIRTH
STAYING HEALTHY IN Tudor times was always a gamble, no matter who you were. Diet, hygiene and lifestyle were unhealthy and there was little or no idea about how infections were spread. Jane’s death from a complication of childbirth was a common event, as were deaths in childhood from tuberculosis, consumption and sweating sickness. On average, people died much younger than they do today, with the average age being around 35–40 years old. There was an outbreak of bubonic plague in 1535, brought about by infected fleas on rats. Such epidemics were made worse by lack of sewage systems and poor sanitation.
However, on the basis of the portrait and advice of his council, Henry sent Cromwell to arrange the marriage treaty, which was finalized in October 1539, despite the betrothed couple never having met in person. Anne duly made the long sea journey to England. Her first experience with her husband-to-be was unsettling, to say the least. Henry, with several of his friends, entered her room dressed in masks and cloaks. Henry then leapt on his unsuspecting fiancée, embracing and kissing her. Anne did not react well to the joke, allegedly shouting for help and cursing the men, having no idea this was her husband-to-be. From then on, Henry was ill-disposed to go through with the marriage, saying that Anne was not as attractive as her portrait and had no sense of humour. He is thought to have dubbed her the ‘Flanders mare’. Despite Henry’s misgivings, the couple were wed on 6 January 1540. It is likely that his advisors, Cromwell especially, stressed the usefulness of a German alliance to ensure the union. They also played on Henry’s fears of securing a Tudor succession by the provision of a ‘spare’.
Describing his forth wife, Anne of Cleves, Henry was heard to say ‘I like her not’ and used her appearance as the reason for not consummating their marriage!
To the satisfaction of both parties – especially Anne, who kept her head – Henry’s brief marriage to Anne was annulled only six months after they were wed. This is the official nullification of the union.
But the marriage was a disaster. Neither party wanted to consummate it and it was only a matter of months before Henry pressed for an annulment on these grounds.
Here, Anne could have proved most difficult, despite their lack of sex life being common knowledge among their companions, who feared there would never be another heir. But Anne, eager herself to avoid a physical relationship with her husband and not wanting to end up like her predecessor Anne Boleyn, gratefully jumped at the annulment. Henry was so thankful to be easily rid of her without offending her family that he awarded Anne money and properties. After the annulment, Anne was often invited to court and the two remained friends. Anne even became known as the King’s ‘beloved’ or ‘good sister’. She never remarried, having sufficient funds to live well for the rest of her life.
As Anne had little family left in Germany, she remained in England for the rest of her life, surrounding herself with female courtiers and living in peace. She outlived Henry and all his wives, dying in 1557. Anne is buried in Westminster Abbey, the only one of Henry’s wives to be laid there. It could be said that she was the luckiest of his wives and shows how appreciative he could be to those who submitted to his will.
THE CAPRICIOUS KING
AFTER CROMWELL’S DEATH, Henry soon felt he had acted rashly. Now remembering all that Cromwell had done for him, Henry came to regret his decision and eventually blamed it on his advisors.
Cromwell had certainly proved his loyalty and constantly acted in the interests of his King and country. His own personal views on reformation, plus political manoeuvrings and the blame placed at his feet for Henry’s marriage to Anne of Cleves, were what led to his death, but Cromwell was truly the King’s man. Henry’s mercurial nature led the King to later regret the beheading of a loyal, faithful man, a character trait that reoccurs throughout his reign with men and women suffering for falling out of his favour.
Continuing with the dissolution of the monasteries at least brought Henry money, but Cromwell’s actions against the idolatry of the Church were a step too far in Henry’s largely orthodox eyes.
Another One Bites the Dust
While Anne’s marriage ended well for her, it brought about the downfall of one of Henry VIII’s most infamous advisors. Never happy giving anyone else too much power, especially if it meant relinquishing it himself, Henry had been willing to use Cromwell’s forceful political skills and sharp intelligence up to a point. But Cromwell was now taking the reformation too far, suggesting cha
nges to the Church that Henry was not happy to make. Continuing with the dissolution of the monasteries at least brought Henry money, but Cromwell’s actions against the idolatry of the Church were a step too far in Henry’s largely orthodox eyes. The more conservative branch of the Church who supported Henry in this started to move against Cromwell, but he worked quickly to suppress them, using his own revisions to the Act of Supremacy to execute several potentially powerful men for treason. A backlash to the reformation had started, but Cromwell had gone too far to stop now. Henry was actually quite a traditional Catholic and felt that Cromwell was approaching heresy in his actions towards the Church. It was this, plus his part in Henry’s marriage to Anne of Cleves, that led to Cromwell’s downfall.
Henry was truly furious at feeling he had been coerced into marriage to Anne of Cleves. Fearing another long, drawn-out divorce, his anger made him turn to some of Cromwell’s enemies, most notably the Duke of Norfolk, who called Cromwell a traitor and organized his arrest. Eager to defeat Cromwell, a list of offences was drawn up, becoming the Bill of Attainder by which Cromwell was sentenced to death without trial or a single supporter. This bill included treason and heresy. Cromwell was also accused of plotting to marry Mary Tudor and supplant Henry on the throne, finding that his enemies were all too eager to support any allegations Henry might charge him with. Henry felt that Cromwell had gone too far. He also knew that Francis I, who Henry was eager to curry favour with, despised Cromwell. The faithful advisor had outlived his use and it was time for him to go.
