by John, Judith
Cromwell is often portrayed as a harsh, villainous man, but he did leave behind a legacy that still shaped Britain. He was a leading hand in the writing of the Great Bible, first released in English in 1539.
This image of the Great Bible gives us a glimpse of what would have been in most churches in England by the mid-sixteenth century. The frontispiece directs clergy to place it where all could read it.
Henry VIII is pictured here in an elaborate, ornate portrait. The powerful King looks stern and alarming, although he is starting to show signs of aging. He is posed in front of the motto of an English monarch. Particularly fitting for Henry VIII, it reads ‘God and my right’.
GREENSLEEVES
HENRY VIII WAS FOND of music and he was a talented musician. He loved the idea of the Renaissance court, filled with skilled performers and learned men who could discuss theology, art and philosophy. Henry’s own skill with music is well known, he could play many instruments and could write music and poetry. Henry wrote Pastimes with Good Company (known as the Kynge’s Ballade). It was also widely speculated that he wrote the popular Greensleeves (see below), but this was never proven and is now thought to be unlikely.
Setting up various bureaucratic institutions, Cromwell brought order and stability to much of England and ensured that the vast amount of money he earned the King was put to good use, including starting the legislation for poor relief in 1536. He was largely responsible for turning a medieval form of government into a more modern version, with separate departments – each receiving a certain amount of money and being run by a group of people – so that no one person held all the power. Cromwell also supported commoners – or whoever the most able person was – in these roles, as opposed to nobles who may have had their own agenda.
Moving on With Haste
Another childless marriage behind him, Henry was beginning to worry about his lack of legitimate children. Despite being 49 and very overweight, he still had an eye for the ladies. With past experience of political alliances never turning out well (wives one, two and four attesting to this fact), Henry decided to turn to his wife’s ladies-in-waiting for his fifth wife. He married Catherine Howard (the niece of the Duke of Norfolk) on 28 July 1540, the very day of Cromwell’s execution. Having long admired Catherine, who at just 19 was 32 years younger than her husband, Catherine’s sparkling youth and vivacity were very attractive to Henry. Equally, the dazzling and expensive gifts he showered on Catherine were attractive to the bubbly girl. At first, the two reveled in their passionate marriage. Henry enjoyed his sexy young bride, believing that she would easily bear his children. Her family were well rewarded too, gaining a reputation for taking advantage of Henry’s happiness and securing positions and wealth for themselves.
Seeming to lack any self-control or self-preservation instincts, she took up with Thomas Culpepper, a courtier whom she had been attracted to before Henry decided to marry her.
The Young Seductress
The honeymoon period would soon be over as Catherine’s youthful exploits would return to haunt her. After the death of her parents, Catherine had spent time in the household of her step-grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk. The Duchess spent little time at home and left her young ward to take care of herself. It was in this household that Catherine met Henry Mannox, a music teacher with whom she engaged in a sexual relationship from the age of 13. A few years later, now no stranger to the arts of lovemaking, Catherine fell for Francis Dereham, the secretary of the Duchess’ household. They also became lovers and in fact may have planned to marry. However, when the Duchess found out about their relationship, Catherine was sent to court to wait on Anne of Cleves.
… now no stranger to the arts of lovemaking, Catherine fell for Francis Dereham, the secretary of the Duchess’ household.
If her youthful indiscretions had ended there, perhaps little harm would have been done. But Catherine’s lust could not be sated by an old King past his prime. Seeming to lack any self-control or self-preservation instincts, she took up with Thomas Culpepper, a courtier whom she had been attracted to before Henry decided to marry her. Catherine and Henry had not been married for a year when she started her affair with Culpepper. It was at this stage that things began to unravel for the imprudent and thoughtless Queen. Used to getting her own way with men, Catherine was aghast when Francis Dereham reappeared. Dereham was appointed as Catherine’s personal secretary, possibly to buy his silence, a decision that would lead to both their downfall.
Henry was informed about her indiscretions. First refusing to believe them, he sent Cranmer to confront her and demand the truth. If Catherine had been honest and told of the understanding between herself and Dereham to be married, her life might have been spared even if her marriage was finished. But she lied, saying that Dereham had forced himself on her. Dereham denied any relationship between them after Catherine’s marriage, instead placing this blame on Culpeper, knowing that Catherine had found him attractive.
ENGLISH NAVAL POWER
WHILE THE ENGLISH Navy was largely established under Henry VII, it did not become such a widely used and pioneering force until the reign of Elizabeth I. However, Henry VIII developed the navy by building larger ships with more guns. England now also kept an active defensive navy during peacetime. The Mary Rose sunk in the Battle of the Solent, the result of France unsuccessfully invading England after the battles in 1544. Salvaged in 1982, the Mary Rose is now a museum ship.
This portrait of Catherine Howard does not belie the girlish coquetry that Henry found so attractive in his fifth wife. Here the expensively dressed Catherine looks more like Jane Seymour or Anne of Cleves than Anne Boleyn, yet she was to share Anne’s grisly fate.
Probably written in 1541, one year after her marriage to Henry, this is a love letter from Catherine Howard to her lover, Thomas Culpeper. Catherine writes: ‘It makes my heart die to think I cannot be always in your company’. Her words would soon ring true.
Catherine was taken to the Tower …. On a chilling note, the boat that carried her passed right beneath the heads of Culpeper and Dereham, whose sentences had already been carried out.
As the evidence against her was mounting, it was when Culpeper confessed that he and the Queen had planned to start an affair that Catherine no longer had a chance of survival. A letter from Catherine was also found, which stated that she longed to see and speak with him. Devastated, with his pride in tatters, Henry lashed out. Both Dereham and Culpeper were executed for treason (Culpeper only being spared the trial of hanged, drawn and quartered as he was a previous favourite of the King).
Catherine was taken to the Tower through Traitor’s gate on 10 February 1542. On a chilling note, the boat that carried her passed right beneath the heads of Culpeper and Dereham, whose sentences had already been carried out. Catherine was held in the Tower for three short days until her execution on 13 February on Tower Green. Aged 21 when she died, she was one of the youngest women to be executed, only beaten by Lady Jane Grey in 1554 (whose exact date of birth is unknown).
Catherine Howard is here being conveyed down the River Thames on her journey to the Tower of London. While her attendants weep for her, Catherine herself appears to be in a state of shock.
The Survivor
Henry married for the sixth and final time on 12 July 1543. His sixth wife was Catherine Parr, a 31-year-old woman who had been married twice before. Here Henry had a wife who was not too young or oversexed, too cunning or flirtatious, too maidenly or frigid, or too uneducated or silly. With Catherine, perhaps Henry would find happiness.
It is widely thought that Catherine acted largely as Henry’s nursemaid during their married life. However, although she would have tried to improve and lighten his mood, it is unlikely that she would actually have nursed him physically. Henry would have had a vast team of physicians to take care of his health. What is true is that Catherine was a devoted, caring and loving wife. Their marriage was at times tumultuous. Catherine had reformist, even Prote
stant, leanings and she would often argue with Henry about religion.
This illustration shows Henry’s sixth wedding to Catherine Parr, who would outlive him. Catherine was enamoured with Thomas Seymour – Jane Seymour’s brother – when Henry made his feelings for her known. Thomas was removed from the court shortly after.
THOMAS SEYMOUR
THOMAS AND EDWARD were the brothers of Jane Seymour. They used their sister’s marriage to further their own power and status within the royal court. A power-hungry schemer, Thomas went as far as planning to marry Princess Elizabeth after Catherine Parr’s death to become King himself. Even when married to Catherine, Thomas would bestow an alarming amount of attention on the young teenaged princess, who was still under her stepmother’s care. In fact, Catherine even found the two of them locked in an embrace once, leading to Elizabeth’s removal from the household.
This led to his displeasure and, in 1546, her Catholic enemies even drew up an arrest warrant for her on the King’s behalf …
This led to his displeasure and, in 1546, her Catholic enemies even drew up an arrest warrant for her on the King’s behalf, but she found out about the charges against her. Going straight to the King, Catherine won him round, saying that many of her arguments were designed to frustrate him, thereby taking his mind off the painful ulcer on his leg. She also flattered his ego by telling Henry she learned from his responses.
The pair were reunited and thought to be fond of one another until Henry’s death. Henry may not have loved his sixth wife with the ardent passion he felt for some of his past wives, but they were friends and he could trust and depend on Catherine. Certainly Henry took pains to support her after his death, leaving her a generous allowance.
Catherine was also trusted enough to be given the title of Regent when Henry was fighting in France in 1544 (only to be deceived by Charles V, who negotiated a separate peace with Francis I). Her uncle, Thomas Cranmer, saw to it that the Queen Regent was supported, but it was her own loyalty and strength of character that saw her successfully manage the French campaign from home while protecting the country from any potential threat from Scotland.
Here we see Henry VIII with his Privy Council. Eager to ensure that the throne of his son, Edward, would be safe from usurpation after his death, Henry’s will stated that sixteen councillors would advise Edward, not giving any single man the chance to snatch power.
Unlucky in love: This nineteenth-century print shows Henry VIII surrounded by portraits of each of his six wives. In clockwise order from the top are: Anne of Cleves; Catherine Howard; Anne Boleyn; Catherine of Aragon; Catherine Parr; and Jane Seymour.
HANS HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER
HOLBEIN IS A German artist widely accepted to be the best portrait painter of the sixteenth century. The official King’s Painter from 1535, his paintings looking like a Who’s Who of Tudor court. His precise style and intricate eye for detail is mixed with layers of symbolism and allegory, with his famous portrait of Henry VIII being a prime example. The realism with which he painted people means that we can largely rely on his portraits to glimpse long-dead people (although his portrait of Anne of Cleves was famously flattering).
This self portrait of Hans Holbein the Younger shows the detail and realism in his paintings. He also experimented with anamorphism in ‘The Ambassadors’ (1533), in which a distorted skull can be seen perfectly when viewed from the extreme right of the painting.
Catherine worked hard to finally reunite Henry with his estranged daughters. The Third Act of Succession in 1543 restored Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession behind Edward and any of his children, provided that his daughters married with the council’s consent. It was this Act that would later put a swift end to Lady Jane Grey’s rule after Edward VI.
On Henry’s death, Catherine quickly remarried, having to do so in secret as it was not seemly for a Queen Dowager to take a new husband so soon after the King’s death. Thomas Seymour, an old flame of Catherine’s, became her fourth husband (she is known as the English Queen who was married the most). This marriage also had its ups and downs. Seymour had previously tried to marry Elizabeth, Catherine’s step-daughter, before settling for Catherine herself.
Catherine later gave birth to her only child, Mary, on 30 August 1548. She died shortly afterwards from puerperal fever, the same infection that killed Jane Seymour.
The fact that she and Henry had no children is perhaps down to Henry’s failing health at the time of their marriage. Now in his mid 50s, with a turbulent and voracious life behind him, Henry was hugely obese. Far from the active, sporting young man he used to be, the aged King now needed help to move around. This excessive diet and lack of exercise may have been the cause of many of his health problems, which included gout, skin complaints and possible diabetes. He suffered from a bad fall during a jousting match in 1536 (which was the possible cause of Anne Boleyn’s miscarriage of a son). The wound had festered for years and often reopened, causing pain and much discomfort. It also further curtailed any activity, including his sex life.
Nearing the end of his life, bloated and in constant pain, Henry VIII found it hard even to walk by his mid-50s. Neither his wife, nor any of his children were with him when he died. Pictured here, Henry is a sobering reminder that not even great kings live forever.
Henry VIII died at the age of 55, the fun and frivolity of his magnificent early court forgotten in a bloody sea of executions, reformation and violence. Fading away – the exact cause of his death is unknown – Henry died in the presence of Archbishop Cranmer, one of the few advisors close to the King to avoid execution, and perhaps the closest person Henry had to a true friend.
Many versions of Henry VIII’s final words exist, including him calling out for Jane Seymour, his favourite wife who had given him the son he so dearly wanted. Other versions have him raving ‘Monks, monks, monks!’, perhaps never being able to forgive himself for his crimes against the faithful servants of his Church. In reality, the aged King would have found it difficult to speak at all. As always, the great equalizer of death proved to be even more powerful than this most magnificent and formidable of Kings.
Henry was a man of great personality and determination who lived his life to the full, never allowing potential consequences to impede his search for happiness and fulfillment. The King was able to inspire men to follow him, even if he did not always think through the consequences of where he was leading them. The supremacy he took as his birthright meant that no one could challenge his actions. If remembered for nothing else, Henry VIII was a true and mighty King in the eyes of his subjects and remains a source of fascination to this very day.
Henry VIII is buried in St. George’s Chapel in Windsor Castle. His remains lie beneath this marble memorial plaque in a vault he shares with Jane Seymour. Over a hundred years later, King Charles I was interred into the same vault.
Edward VI as painted by Hans Holbein the Younger, circa 1538. The portrait shows the young Edward to be a happy and healthy child. The Latin text at the bottom of the picture encourages Edward to live up to his illustrious father’s example.
IV
TUDORS
EDWARD VI: REFORMS,
REBELLIONS AND ROUGES
King for barely six years, Edward VI did not even reach his majority before he died at the age of 15. The unknown Tudor, Edward was overshadowed by his larger-than-life father, Henry VIII, and his successors Mary I and Elizabeth I. Despite Henry VIII’s attempts to secure the throne for his only male heir, Edward VI would face threats to his crown and a reign filled with controversy and unrest.
‘Edward VI lived only a few years... but he lived them worthily.’
The ‘godly imp’ was led by strong-willed men who became seduced by the thought of absolute power, yet Edward’s rule nevertheless cemented Protestantism as the new English faith, taking religious reforms further than his father ever intended. However, his ill-timed death left the Tudor monarchy in grave doubt as a succession battle was soon to eru
pt.
Edward’s Childhood
Often described as a happy and lovable child, Edward spent his early childhood among women, who saw to the every want and need of the little prince. Beloved and treated as precious by his father (who, as a young boy, had resented the smothering upbringing of Henry VII and Margaret Beaufort), Edward was indulged and cosseted as the son and heir to the King of England, suffering none of the chaos that affected the childhood of both his sisters.
Crowds have gathered en masse to cheer the coronation procession of the boy king. Edward was crowned on 20 February 1547 at Westminster Abbey, followed by a banquet at Westminster Hall. Six years later, Edward would return to the Abbey to be buried.
It is possible that Edward was seen as weak and feeble only in comparison with his gigantic and imposing father.
Because of his father’s relatively traditional beliefs, Edward’s early religious upbringing was largely Catholic. However, after beginning his formal education at the age of six, Edward was given the finest tutors available at the time who were more reformist in their leanings. Richard Cox was Edward’s almoner and took a leading role in his education. Cox became an active reformer under Edward’s rule. John Cheke was one of Cambridge’s brightest students and was responsible for teaching Edward the classics, philosophy and liberal sciences. He also had Protestant beliefs, and the influence of both men would leave a mark on the young King, who, like his father, was eager to appear learned and articulate. Edward was also taught languages, music and arts, as well as foreign affairs and how to behave at court. Unlike Henry VIII – the younger son – there was never any doubt that Edward would grow up to rule his nation and all the signs showed he would make a great King.
