The Borgias

by G. J. Meyer

  3. The scholarly diplomat Enea … : Piccolomini’s words about the newly appointed Cardinal Rodrigo are in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 40.

  4. Alfonso V, always happy … : The dispute between pope and king over the March of Ancona and other properties is in Pius II, Memoirs, p. 95.

  5. Calixtus was prodded into action … : The story of Rodrigo’s subduing of Josias in Ascola appears in abbreviated form in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 38.

  Background: The Men in the Red Hats

  1. Typically, the cardinals pledged … : The emergence and intent of capitulations is detailed in Hay, Europe, p. 278.

  2. Most of them had charge … : Majanlahti, Families, p. 53, describes in detail the structure and responsibilities of the Curial bureaucracy. Mallett, Borgias, p. 49, is also helpful on the subject.

  3. Of the fifteen cardinals … : The national origins of cardinals present at various conclaves are in Hay, Church in Italy, p. 41.

  4. The complex ironies of the situation … : Gonzaga’s advice to his son the cardinal appears in Martines, Power and Imagination, p. 306.

  Chapter 5: The End of the Beginning

  1. “Would to God …”: The translation of Cardinal Piccolomini’s letter to Rodrigo Borgia appears in De Roo, Material, p. 2:67.

  2. He was to report to Rome … : The position of vice-chancellor and its place in the papal bureaucracy are detailed in Majanlahti, Families, p. 77.

  3. No one was more delighted … : Calixtus’s words are in Johnson, Borgias, p. 51.

  4. No less significantly … : Illegitimacy as a barrier to inheritance of a crown is explained in De Roo, Material, p. 1:175.

  5. He pledged to “do my utmost …”: Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 7, and Johnson, Borgias, p. 48.

  PART TWO: Rodrigo

  A Long Apprenticeship

  The three and a half decades when Rodrigo Borgia served as vice-chancellor of the Roman Catholic Church kept him at the center of the reigns of five popes and so of Italian and European affairs. Therefore his public career through all these years is thoroughly documented, and the fact that his private life generated nearly no comment in spite of his prominence is curious if his posthumous reputation for scandalous behavior is deserved.

  Chapter 6: Surviving

  1. Attention now turned … : Exceptionally detailed accounts of the conclave of 1455 are in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:166, and Mallett, Borgias, p. 68.

  2. What happened next … : Cardinal Piccolomini’s own account of his exchange with Rodrigo Borgia and subsequent election is in Pius II, Memoirs, p. 80.

  3. The new pope was a remarkable man … : Piccolomini’s life story is in Ady, Humanist Pope, and in Mitchell, Laurels and Tiara.

  4. When on September 26 … : Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 12, gives the cause of death as malaria without qualification, but his certainty on the point is not explained.

  5. As conceived by Pius … : The innovative character of the Mantua conference is explained in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:182.

  6. One was a proclamation … : Ibid., p. 7:183.

  7. It was prompted … : For the significance of the Pragmatic Sanction, see Barraclough, Medieval Papacy, pp. 183, 187.

  Background: The Eternal City, Eternally Reborn

  1. The Rome of Pius II’s time … : As a source of information about and insight into its subject, nothing surpasses Stinger, Renaissance in Rome.

  2. “The city is for the most part …”: Latour, Borgias, p. 15.

  3. As the historian Theodor Mommsen … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 36.

  4. A chronicler described … : Majanlahti, Families, p. 42.

  Chapter 7: Pius II: Troubles Rumored and Real

  1. Beloved Son, We have learned … : Translations of both of Pius II’s letters to Cardinal Rodrigo about the Siena affair are in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 56.

  2. There has probably never been … : Gaspar of Verona’s description of Cardinal Rodrigo appears in Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 9.

  3. He was rather stolidly … : Alexander’s religious conservatism is discussed in Mallett, Borgias, p. 240.

  4. His reputation has suffered … : The slanderous pamphlet is discussed by Pastor, History of Popes, p. 6:114.

  5. This encouraged further … : Guicciardini’s claim that Rodrigo Borgia was “mightily lustful of both” appears in Deiss, Captains of Fortune, p. 23.

  6. Pius II in his Memoirs … : Pius II, Memoirs, p. 254.

  7. The fare was so plain … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 229.

  8. The German Ludwig Pastor … : Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:386.

  9. A twentieth-century historian … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 82.

  10. Even Guicciardini conceded … : De la Bedoyere, Meddlesome Friar, p. 65.

  11. It may have been bafflement … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 82.

  12. There was a continuing war in Naples … : For the story of Ferrante saving his throne with the help of the pope and the Sforzas, see Gregorovius, History of Rome, pp. 7:185, 197. Ady, Humanist Pope, p. 103, is good on the troubles in Rome that obliged Pius to return from Tuscany.

  13. As the rebellious barons … : Ferrante’s dark side is illuminated in perhaps excessively lurid detail in Prescott, Princes, p. 65.

  14. In 1462, unable … : De Roo, Material, p. 3:71.

  15. It was the discovery … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:209.

  16. He hurried to Rome … : Castro’s words are in Pius II, Memoirs, p. 233.

  17. He died the next day … : The aborting of Pius’s crusade is in Norwich, History of Venice, p. 343.

  Background: Il Papa

  1. The story of the popes … : See Barraclough, Medieval Papacy, for the story of the medieval popes, and Pastor, History of Popes, for the Renaissance papacy.

  Chapter 8: Paul II: The Poisoned Chalice

  1. The conclave that followed … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:218.

  2. Therefore they made it … : For the capitulations of 1464, ibid., p. 7:221.

  3. (If betrayal it was …): Stinger, Renaissance in Rome, p. 162.

  4. Even as a young man … : Paul II’s life story is in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:218, with much additional detail in Robertson, Tyranny.

  5. But when he demanded reforms … : See Robertson, Tyranny, p. 68, for detail on how Paul’s settlement with Bologna strengthened the Bentivoglii.

  6. Most humiliating of all … : The revolt of the abbreviators and the slanders of Bartolomeo Platina are in Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, p. 297.

  7. Negropont was a key Venetian stronghold … : The fall of Negropont and its importance are in Norwich, History of Venice, p. 347.

  Background: The Inextinguishable Evil-Heads

  1. Malatesta: the word translates … : For more on the Malatestas, see Jones, Malatesta of Rimini, and Prescott, Princes, the three chapters beginning on p. 278.

  2. “I am Sigismondo Malatesta …”: Ady, Humanist Pope, p. 194.

  Chapter 9: Sixtus IV: Disturbing the Peace

  1. Della Rovere seemed a perfect choice … : Della Rovere’s career before his election is in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:242.

  2. The selection of Rodrigo Borgia … : Rodrigo Borgia’s mission to Spain is described in unparalleled detail in De Roo, Material, vol. 2, and also receives extensive attention in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 71, and in Mallett, Borgias, p. 93.

  3. Rodrigo moved on to Castile … : Cloulas, Borgias, p. 48, is exceptionally good on Cardinal Rodrigo’s activities in Castile.

  4. Having earlier accused Rodrigo … : For Cardinal Ammannati-Piccolomini’s accusations about and communications with Cardinal Rodrigo, see Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 65.

  5. Still in Milan … : The alleged plotting of Sforza and Cardinal Riario is discussed in Burckhardt, Civilization, p. 75.

  Background: War, Italian Style

  1. Most of them were … : For further information about the condottieri and their place in Italian history, see Deiss, Captains of Fo
rtune; Prescott, Princes; and Mallett, Mercenaries.

  Chapter 10: Innocent VIII: Plumbing the Depths

  1. And so was hatched … : Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 254.

  2. He summoned Lorenzo to Rome … : The conflict between Sixtus and the league supporting Florence is told in detail in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:261.

  3. When a hard-pressed Venice … : The terms on which Venice made peace with the Turks in 1479 are in Norwich, History of Venice, p. 357.

  4. Lorenzo bet everything … : An account of Lorenzo’s trip to Naples is in Hibbert, House of Medici, p. 152.

  5. The withdrawal was hailed … : The occupation of and subsequent withdrawal from Otranto is in Stinger, Renaissance in Rome, p. 114, and Norwich, History of Venice, p. 357.

  6. A Christian counteroffensive … : Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:266, offers the opinion that attacks on Constantinople and Greece could have succeeded.

  7. He said they could have … : Venice’s “savage attack” on Ferrara, and the political context, are treated at length ibid., p. 7:268.

  8. Rome exploded in an orgy … : Ibid., p. 7:287.

  9. This was Rodrigo’s fourth … : Interestingly varying accounts of the conclave of 1484 are in ibid., p. 7:287; Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:233; Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 20; and Mallett, Borgias, p. 97.

  10. Cibo’s roots contributed … : Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 262; Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:350; and Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:290.

  11. Other signs of favor followed … : De Roo, Material, vol. 2, is comprehensive on the benefices granted to Rodrigo Borgia by Innocent among other popes, and he contradicts what is said in Mallett, Borgias, p. 102, about the purchase of the duchy of Gandía for Pedro Luis Borgia.

  12. The tragedy opened this time … : The destructive consequences of Alfonso duke of Calabria’s visit to Rome are described in Prescott, Princes, p. 72, and Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:293.

  13. Thus, when Alfonso later … : Innocent’s continuing difficulties with Naples are detailed in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:274.

  14. The character of their marriage … : Caterina’s lament that “you cannot imagine the life I lead” is in Prescott, Princes, p. 117.

  15. The extent of his commitment … : The troubles confronting Innocent as 1491 ended are discussed in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:311, and in Elliott, Imperial Spain, p. 90.

  PART THREE: Alexander

  Pope at Last

  The great challenge for anyone examining the reign of Alexander VI is to decide which of the vast number of things said about his personal life and conduct during his papacy (including the many examples of which there is no record predating his death) should be regarded as at least possibly if not certainly true. One work is indispensable in this regard: Peter De Roo’s five-volume Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI, which offers incomparably more documentation and analysis than any other source. Ferrara, Borgia Pope, whose conclusions echo De Roo’s and undoubtedly are to some extent based on them, is useful as a succinct introduction to the key questions.

  Chapter 11: The Best Man for the Job

  1. I am Pope!: Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 109.

  2. I! I am Pope!: The anonymous and influentially slanderous pamphlet in which this version of Alexander’s supposed exclamation first appeared is discussed in De Roo, Material, p. 2:336; Pastor, History of Popes, p. 6:113; and Hibbert, Borgias and Enemies, p. 37.

  3. He wrote—and influenced … : The accusations of simony are in Guicciardini, History of Italy, p. 13, and challenged by De la Bedoyere, Meddlesome Friar, p. 86; Mallett, Borgias, p. 117; and De Roo, Material, p. 2:339.

  4. And that the 1492 conclave … : Quoted are words from Guicciardini, History of Italy, p. 13.

  5. He could be ridiculously … : Hibbert, Borgias and Enemies, p. 61.

  6. From the point at which … : Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, p. 312.

  7. Even as intransigent … : Infessura’s words are in Latour, Borgias, p. 31.

  8. In one of these missives … : Ferrante’s complaints to Spain about Alexander are in De Roo, Material, p. 4:74.

  9. “Rest assured,” López replied … : Ibid., p. 4:76.

  10. “He is small and ill-made …”: Contarini’s description is in Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 184.

  11. At the end of 1493 … : The Briçonnet mission to the papal court is in De Roo, Material, p. 4:163, and Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:359.

  Background: Madness and Milan

  1. All the Visconti and Sforza … : Prescott devotes more than fifty pages to the history of Visconti in Lords and almost as many to the Sforza dynasty in Princes.

  2. “Do you not know, you fool …”: Prescott, Lords, p. 299.

  Chapter 12: The Coming of the French

  1. There survives a unique … : The Ferrarese ambassador’s description of the adolescent Cesare appears in Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 57.

  2. He was at least … : Burckhardt, Civilization, p. 28.

  3. Other support was needed … : The favors bestowed on various Borgias by kings of Naples are in Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 59.

  4. It was typical of the relaxed view … : Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:427.

  5. They brought with them … : The revolutionary effects of the new artillery, including its contribution to the quick collapse of Naples, are in Taylor, Art of War, pp. 83, 132.

  6. His troops marched under standards … : De la Bedoyere, Meddlesome Friar, p. 117.

  7. That the arrival of the French … : The French invasion’s immense consequences for the future of Italy are outlined in Martines, Power and Imagination, p. 277.

  8. If it is true as alleged … : Strathern, Artist, Philosopher, p. 72, states that Ascanio Sforza persuaded the Colonna to seize Ostia for the French.

  9. He told the assembled … : King Charles’s demands of the Florentines are in Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, p. 429.

  10. “The triumph of France …”: Alexander’s warning about the consequences of the French invasion are in Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 71.

  11. Also necessary, he noted … : Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 285.

  12. Charles, he says, is “young and …”: Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 193.

  Background: Florence: An Anti-Renaissance

  1. He gave early evidence … : Savonarola’s words are in Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 269.

  Chapter 13: The French Depart

  1. In short order they formed … : The terms of the Holy League are in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:467.

  2. When a new round of appeals … : Ibid., p. 5:469.

  3. With him went also … : The extreme estimates are by Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:396, who says twenty thousand mules, and by Cronin, Florentine Renaissance, p. 287, who says five thousand.

  4. Something worse than wailing ladies … Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 472.

  5. The ensuing battle of Fornovo … : A clear and detailed account of the battle is in Mallett, Mercenaries, p. 242.

  6. When it was over … : Prescott, Princes, p. 25.

  7. The result, hastily arrived at … : The Peace of Vercelli is in Norwich, History of Venice, p. 378.

  Background: The Paternity Question: An “Apology”

  1. A rare exception is Michael Mallett … : Mallett’s Borgias describes De Roo’s work as a “vast collection” (p. 325) and as a “vast apologist work” coated with “whitewash” (p. 329).

  2. He says forthrightly … : De Roo, Material, p. 1: xi.

  3. The four young Borgias … : Ibid., p. 1:132, and Ferrara, Borgia Pope, p. 168.

  4. Gregorovius, interestingly, says he … : Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, p. 13.

  5. The author of the present work … : Genealogical information about the Borgias of Spain is in Imhof, Genealogie viginti, pp. 19–28.

  6. Various documents supposedly … : De Roo’s exploration of the forgery question is in Material, pp. 1:447–
529, and is followed by eighty pages of documents and extracts from documents.

  7. De Roo devotes eighty-three pages … : The statement about a bull of legitimization being the “fabrication of some criminal ignorant of the habits of the Roman Curia” is ibid., p. 1:417.

  8. Typical are a 1493 ambassador’s letter … : De Roo’s extensive discussion of the use of such terms as “son” and “nephew,” “daughter” and “niece” begins ibid., p. 1:420.

  9. A Spanish royal brief … : Ibid., p. 1:197.

  Chapter 14: A Shattering Loss

  1. One of them would remember … : Mallett, Borgias, p. 145.

  2. Ascanio Sforza for one … : The Sforza cardinal’s clash with Juan Borgia is in Bellonci, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 93, and Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:493.

  3. “The duke of Gandía is dead …”: Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 113.

  4. Of the Orsini he said nothing … : Reasons to suspect the Orsini are in Pastor, History of Popes, p. 5:506, and for not suspecting Cesare are in the same work, p. 511; Woodward, Cesare Borgia, p. 114; and Mallett, Borgias, p. 154.

  5. He announced that he was creating … : The work of Alexander’s reform commission and the lack of result are in De Roo, Material, p. 3:171.

  6. This was made freshly apparent … : The arrest of Alexander’s former secretary and confession to forging documents are in Gregorovius, History of Rome, p. 7:432.

  7. He was now fully formed … : Paolo Capello’s words are in Bradford, Lucrezia Borgia, p. 18.