Strategy

by Lawrence Freedman

  32. Cited in Jason Vest, “Fourth-Generation Warfare,” Atlantic Magazine, December 2001.

  33. William Lind et al., “The Changing Face of War,” The Marine Corps Gazette, October 1989, 22–26, available at http://zinelibrary.info/files/TheChangingFaceofWar-onscreen.pdf.

  34. Ralph Peters, “The New Warrior Class,” Parameters 24, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 20.

  35. Joint Publication 3–13, Information Operations, March 13, 2006.

  36. Nik Gowing, ‘Skyful of Lies’ and Black Swans: The New Tyranny of Shifting Information Power in Crises (Oxford, UK: Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, 2009).

  37. John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, “Cyberwar is Coming!” Comparative Strategy 12, no. 2 (Spring 1993): 141–165.

  38. Steve Metz, Armed Conflict in the 21st Century: The Information Revolution and Post-Modern Warfare (April 2000): “Future war may see attacks via computer viruses, worms, logic bombs, and trojan horses rather than bullets, bombs, and missiles.”

  39. Thomas Rid, Cyberwar Will Not Take Place (London: Hurst & Co., 2013). David Betz argues for the complexity of effect in “Cyberpower in Strategic Affairs: Neither Unthinkable nor Blessed,” The Journal of Strategic Studies 35, no. 5 (October 2012): 689–711.

  40. John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, eds., Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime, and Militancy (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2001). The full text is available at www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1382/. For a summary of their arguments, see David Ronfeldt and John Arquilla, “Networks, Netwars, and the Fight for the Future,” First Monday 6, no. 10 (October 2001), available at http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_10/ronfeldt/index.html.

  41. Jerrold M. Post, Keven G. Ruby, and Eric D. Shaw, “From Car Bombs to Logic Bombs: The Growing Threat from Information Terrorism,” Terrorism and Political Violence 12, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 102–103.

  42. Norman Emery, Jason Werchan, and Donald G. Mowles, “Fighting Terrorism and Insurgency: Shaping the Information Environment,” Military Review, January/Febuary 2005, 32–38.

  43. Robert H. Scales, Jr., “Culture-Centric Warfare,” The Naval Institute Proceedings, October 2004.

  44. Montgonery McFate, “The Military Utility of Understanding Adversary Culture,” Joint Forces Quarterly 38 (July 2005): 42–48.

  45. Max Boot, Invisible Armies, 386 (see chap. 14, n. 22).

  46. A useful guide to the academic debates on this issue is Alan Bloomfield, “Strategic Culture: Time to Move On,” Contemporary Security Policy 33, no. 3 (December 2012): 437–461.

  47. Patrick Porter, Military Orientalism: Eastern War Through Western Eyes (London: Hurst & Co., 2009), 193.

  48. David Kilcullen, “Twenty-Eight Articles: Fundamentals of Company-Level Counterinsurgency,” Military Review, May–June 2006, 105–107. This began as an e-mail that was widely distributed around the army.

  49. Emile Simpson, War from the Ground Up: Twenty-First-Century Combat as Politics (London: Hurst & Co., 2012), 233.

  50. G. J. David and T. R. McKeldin III, Ideas as Weapons: Influence and Perception in Modern Warfare (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2009), 3. See in particular Timothy J. Doorey, “Waging an Effective Strategic Communications Campaign in the War on Terror,” and Frank Hoffman, “Maneuvering Against the Mind.”

  51. Jeff Michaels, The Discourse Trap and the US Military: From the War on Terror to the Surge (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). See also Frank J. Barrett and Theodore R. Sarbin, “The Rhetoric of Terror: ‘War’ as Misplaced Metaphor,” in John Arquilla and Douglas A. Borer, eds., Information Strategy and Warfare: A Guide to Theory and Practice (New York: Routledge, 2007): 16–33.

  52. Hy S. Rothstein, “Strategy and Psychological Operations,” in Arquilla and Borer, 167.

  53. Neville Bolt, The Violent Image: Insurgent Propaganda and the New Revolutionaries (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).

  54. Al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri wrote in July 2005: “We are in the midst of war, and more than half of that struggle takes place on an information battlefield; we are in an information war for the hearts and minds of all Muslims.” The text of the letter is available in English from the Office of the Director of National Intelligence, at http://www.dni.gov/press_releases/20051011_release.htm.

  55. Benedict Wilkinson, The Narrative Delusion: Strategic Scripts and Violent Islamism in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Yemen, unpublished doctoral thesis, King’s College London, 2013.

  17 The Myth of the Master Strategist

  1. Colin S. Gray, Modern Strategy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 23–43.

  2. Harry Yarger, Strategic Theory for the 21st Century: The Little Book on Big Strategy (Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 2006), 36, 66, 73–75.

  3. Colin S. Gray, The Strategy Bridge: Theory for Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 23.

  4. Ibid., 49, 52. This was a reference to Albert Wohlstetter.

  5. Yarger, Strategic Theory for the 21st Century, 75.

  6. Robert Jervis, Systems Effects: Complexity in Political and Social Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).

  7. Hugh Smith, “The Womb of War: Clausewitz and International Politics,” Review of International Studies 16 (1990): 39–58.

  8. Eliot Cohen, Supreme Command: Soldiers, Statesmen, and Leadership in Wartime (New York: The Free Press, 2002).

  18 Marx and a Strategy for the Working Class

  1. Mike Rapport, 1848: Year of Revolution (London: Little, Brown & Co. 2008), 17–18.

  2. Sigmund Neumann and Mark von Hagen, “Engels and Marx on Revolution, War, and the Army in Society,” in Paret, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy, 262–280 (see chap. 6, n. 2); Bernard Semmell, Marxism and the Science of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 266.

  3. This section comes from Part I, Feuerbach. “Opposition of the Materialist and Idealist Outlook,” The German Ideology, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm.

  4. Azar Gat, “Clausewitz and the Marxists: Yet Another Look,” Journal of Contemporary History 27, no. 2 (April 1992): 363–382.

  5. Rapport, 1848: Year of Revolution, 108.

  6. Alan Gilbert, Marx’s Politics: Communists and Citizens (New York: Rutgers University Press, 1981), 134–135.

  7. Engels, “Revolution in Paris,” February 27, 1848, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/02/27.htm.

  8. News from Paris, June 23, 1848, emphasis in original. Available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/06/27.htm.

  9. Gilbert, Marx’s Politics, 140–142, 148–149.

  10. Rapport, 1848: Year of Revolution, 212.

  11. Engels, “Marx and the Neue Rheinische Zeitung,” March 13, 1884, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/03/13.htm.

  12. Rapport, 1848: Year of Revolution, 217.

  13. Karl Marx, Class Struggles in France, 1848–1850, Part II, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1850/class-struggles-france/ch02.htm.

  14. Engels to Marx, December 3, 1851, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1851/letters/51_12_03.htm#cite.

  15. John Maguire, Marx’s Theory of Politics (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 31.

  16. Ibid., 197–198.

  17. Manifesto of the Communist Party, February 1848, 75, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/.

  18. Engels, “The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution,” 1850, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1850/german-imperial/intro.htm.

  19. David McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 217.

  20. Frederick Engels, “Conditions and Prospects of a War of the Holy Alliance Against France in 1852,” April 1851, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1851/04/holy-alliance.htm.

  21. Gerald Runkle, “Karl Marx and the American Civil War,” Comparative Studie
s in Society and History 6, no. 2 (January 1964): 117–141.

  22. Engels to Joseph Weydemeyer, June 19, 1851, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1851/letters/51_06_19.htm.

  23. Engels to Joseph Weydemeyer, April 12, 1853, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1853/letters/53_04_12.htm.

  24. Sigmund Neumann and Mark von Hagen, “Engels and Marx on Revolution, War, and the Army in Society,” in Paret, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy; Semmell, Marxism and the Science of War, 266.

  25. Engels had fought beside him in Baden. The story of Engels’s military adventures is found in Tristram Hunt, The Frock-Coated Communist: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels (London: Allan Lane, 2009), 174–181.

  26. Gilbert, Marx’s Politics, 192.

  27. Christine Lattek, Revolutionary Refugees: German Socialism in Britain, 1840–1860 (London: Routledge, 2006).

  28. Marx to Engels, September 23, 1851, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1851/letters/51_09_23.htm.

  29. Engels to Marx, September 26, 1851, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1851/letters/51_09_26.htm.

  30. This was originally published as articles under Marx’s name in the New York Tribune and then brought together as a book under his own name, Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany. The quote is from p. 90. Available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1852/germany/index.htm.

  19 Herzen and Bakunin

  1. Isaiah Berlin’s influential assertion that Herzen had been neglected in the West first appeared in the New York Review of Books in 1968 and appeared as an introduction to Herzen’s diaries, My Past & Thoughts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973). For a long time, the most substantial biography was E. H. Carr’s Romantic Exiles (Cambridge, UK: Penguin, 1949), from which Stoppard drew extensively. See also Edward Acton, Alexander Herzen and the Role of the Intellectual Revolutionary (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

  2. Tom Stoppard, “The Forgotten Revolutionary,” The Observer, June 2, 2002.

  3. Tom Stoppard, The Coast of Utopia, Part II, Shipwreck (London: Faber & Faber, 2002), 18.

  4. Anna Vanninskaya, “Tom Stoppard, the Coast of Utopia, and the Strange Death of the Liberal Intelligentsia,” Modern Intellectual History 4, no. 2 (2007): 353–365.

  5. Tom Stoppard, The Coast of Utopia, Part III, Salvage (London: Faber & Faber, 2002), 74–75.

  6. Cited in Acton, Alexander Herzen and the Role of the Intellectual Revolutionary, 159.

  7. Ibid., 171, 176; Herzen, My Past & Thoughts, 1309–1310.

  8. Stoppard, Salvage, 7–8.

  9. Engels, “The Program of the Blanquist Fugitives from the Paris Commune,” June 26, 1874, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1874/06/26.htm.

  10. Henry Eaton, “Marx and the Russians,” Journal of the History of Ideas 41, no. 1 (January/March 1980): 89–112.

  11. Cited in Mark Leier, Bakunin: A Biography (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2006), 119.

  12. Herzen, My Past & Thoughts, 573.

  13. Ibid., 571.

  14. Aileen Kelly, Mikhail Bakunin: A Study in the Psychology and Politics of Utopianism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982). For a critique, see Robert M. Cutler, “Bakunin and the Psychobiographers: The Anarchist as Mythical and Historical Object,” KLIO (St. Petersburg), [Abstract of English original of article] in press [in Russian translation], available at http://www.robertcutler.org/bakunin/ar09klio.htm.

  15. In his later confessions, cited by Peter Marshall, Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism (London: Harper Perennial, 2008), 269.

  16. Paul Thomas, Karl Marx and the Anarchists (London: Routledge, 1990), 261–262.

  17. Marshall, Demanding the Impossible, 244–245, 258–259.

  18. Proudhon, quoted in K. Steven Vincent, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and the Rise of French Republican Socialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 148.

  19. Thomas, Marx and the Anarchists, 250.

  20. Alvin W. Gouldner, “Marx’s Last Battle: Bakunin and the First International,” Theory and Society 11, no. 6 (November 1982): 861. Special issue in memory of Alvin W. Gouldner.

  21. Cited in Hunt, The Frock-Coated Communist, 259 (see chap. 18, n. 25).

  22. Leier, Bakunin: A Biography, 191; Paul McClaughlin, Bakunin: The Philosophical Basis of his Anarchism (New York: Algora Publishing, 2002).

  23. Mikhail A. Bakunin, Statism and Anarchy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 159.

  24. Saul Newman, From Bakunin to Lacan: Anti-authoritarianism and the Dislocation of Power (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2001), 37.

  25. Leier, Bakunin: A Biography, 194–195.

  26. Ibid., 184, 210, 241–242.

  27. Proudhon’s own War and Peace is extremely muddled, not least in its apparent glorification of war. A more literary inspiration for Tolstoy was Victor Hugo, whose Les Misérables demonstrated a way of writing about historical events.

  28. Leier, Bakunin: A Biography, 196.

  29. Carr, The Romantic Exiles.

  30. Available at www.marxists.org/subject/anarchism/nechayev/catechism.htm.

  31. Cited by Marshall, Demanding the Impossible, 346.

  32. Carl Levy, “Errico Malatesta and Charismatic Leadership,” in Jan Willem Stutje, ed., Charismatic Leadership and Social Movements (New York: Berghan Books, 2012), 89–90. Levy suggests that Malatesta’s barnstorming around Italy from December 1919 to October 1920 meant that opportunities were missed to organize the workers.

  33. Ibid., 94.

  34. Joseph Conrad, Under Western Eyes (London: Everyman’s Library, 1991).

  35. Joseph Conrad, The Secret Agent (London: Penguin, 2007).

  36. Stanley G. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union and Communism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004).

  37. Levy, “Errico Malatesta,” 94.

  20 Revisionists and Vanguards

  1. Engels, Introduction to Karl Marx’s THE CLASS STRUGGLES IN FRANCE 1848 TO 1850, March 6, 1895, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/03/06.htm.

  2. Engels to Kautsky, April 1, 1895, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/letters/95_04_01.htm.

  3. Engels, Reply to the Honorable Giovanni Bovio, Critica Sociale No. 4, February 16, 1892, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1892/02/critica-sociale.htm.

  4. Marx, Critique of the Gotha Programme, May 1875, available at https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm. McLellan, Karl Marx see Chapter 20, n. 19, 437.

  5. Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism: The Founders, the Golden Age, the Breakdown (New York: Norton, 2005), 391.

  6. Stephen Eric Bronner, “Karl Kautsky and the Twilight of Orthodoxy,” Political Theory 10, no. 4 (November 1982): 580–605.

  7. Elzbieta Ettinger, Rosa Luxemburg: A Life (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1986), xii, 87.

  8. Rosa Luxemburg, Reform or Revolution (London: Bookmarks Publications, 1989).

  9. Rosa Luxembourg, The Mass Strike, the Political Party, and the Trade Unions, 1906, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1906/mass-strike/index.htm.

  10. Engels, “The Bakuninists at Work: An Account of the Spanish Revolt in the Summer of 1873,” September/October 1873, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1873/bakunin/index.htm.

  11. Rosa Luxemburg, The Mass Strike.

  12. Leon Trotsky, My Life: The Rise and Fall of a Dictator (London: T. Butterworth, 1930).

  13. Karl Kautsky, “The Mass Strike,” 1910, cited in Stephen D’Arcy, “Strategy, Meta-strategy and Anti-capitalist Activism: Rethinking Leninism by Re-reading Lenin,” Socialist Studies: The Journal of the Society for Socialist Studies 5, no. 2 (2009): 64–89.

  14. Lenin, “The Historical Meaning of the Inner-Party Struggle,” 1910, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1910/hmipsir/index.htm.

  15. Vladimir Lenin, W
hat Is to Be Done?, 35, available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1901/witbd/index.htm.