Strategy

by Lawrence Freedman

  27. Che Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare (London: Penguin, 1967). See also Che Guevara, The Bolivian Diaries (London: Penguin, 1968).

  28. Childs, “An Historical Critique,” 617.

  29. Paul Dosal, Commandante Che: Guerrilla Soldier, Commander, and Strategist, 1956–1967 (University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 2003), 313.

  30. Regis Debray, Revolution in the Revolution (London: Pelican, 1967).

  31. Ibid., 51. Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Bantam Books, 1997), suggests a more positive view of the book by Che but not of Debray. Debray eventually decided that Castro and Che were not so admirable.

  32. It was originally circulated in the Tricontinental Bimonthly (January–February 1970). It is available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/marighellacarlos/1969/06/minimanual-urban-guerrilla/index.htm. On Marighella and his influence, see John W. Williams, “Carlos Marighella: The Father of Urban Guerrilla Warfare,” Terrorism 12, no. 1 (1989): 1–20.

  33. The episode is covered in Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, 662–664. Henry Raymont, “Violence as a Weapon of Dissent Is Debated at Forum in ‘Village,’ ” New York Times, December 17, 1967. The proceedings are found in Alexander Klein, ed., Dissent, Power, and Confrontation (New York: McGraw Hill, 1971).

  34. Arendt, Reflections on Violence.

  35. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Fire (New York: Dell, 1968), 108. Cited by Childs, “An Historical Critique,” 198.

  36. Hayden, despite his denunciations of liberal corporatism, had maintained a conversation with Kennedy, and was pictured weeping by his coffin.

  37. Tom Hayden, “Two, Three, Many Columbias,” Ramparts, June 15, 1968, 346.

  38. Rudd, Underground, 132.

  39. Ibid., 144.

  40. Daniel Bell, “Columbia and the New Left,” National Affairs 13 (1968): 100.

  41. Letter of December 3, 1966. Bill Morgan, ed., The Letters of Allen Ginsberg (Philadelphia: Da Capo Press, 2008), 324.

  42. Interview with Ginsberg, August 11, 1996, available at http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/interviews.htm.

  43. Amy Hungerford, “Postmodern Supernaturalism: Ginsberg and the Search for a Supernatural Language,” The Yale Journal of Criticism 18, no. 2 (2005): 269–298.

  44. On the origins of the Yippies, see David Farber, Chicago ’68 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988). The name had the advantage of fitting in with hippie (which came from being “hip”) and sounding like a happy cry. To give it some jokey credibility, it was turned into an acronym through reference to a youth international party.

  45. Gitlin, The Sixties, 289.

  46. Farber, Chicago ’68, 20–21.

  47. Harry Oldmeadow, “To a Buddhist Beat: Allen Ginsberg on Politics, Poetics and Spirituality,” Beyond the Divide 2, no. 1 (Winter 1999): 6.

  48. Ibid., 27. By the mid-1970s, he was looking back with a rather conventional observation: “All of our activity in the late sixties may have prolonged the Vietnam war.” Because the Left refused to vote for Humphrey, they got Nixon. He had actually voted for Humphrey. Peter Barry Chowka, “Interview with Allen Ginsberg,” New Age Journal, April 1976, available at http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/interviews.htm.

  49. After it was all over, Hayden, along with seven of the more notorious leaders of the New Left, including Bobby Seale of the Black Panthers, were arrested for inciting the mayhem. Their trial rapidly turned into farce.

  50. Scalmer, Gandhi in the West, 218 (see chap. 23, n. 7).

  51. Michael Kazin, American Dreamers: How the Left Changed a Nation (New York: Vintage Books, 2011), 213.

  52. Betty Friedan, The Feminist Mystique (New York: Dell, 1963).

  53. Casey Hayden and Mary King, “Feminism and the Civil Rights Movement,” 1965, available at http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/archive/resources/documents/ch34_02.htm. On Casey Hayden, see Davis W. Houck and David E. Dixon, eds., Women and the Civil Rights Movement, 1954–1965 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2009), 135–137.

  54. Jo Freeman, “The Origins of the Women’s Liberation Movement,” American Journal of Sociology 78, no. 4 (1973): 792–811; Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America (New York: Penguin, 2000).

  55. Carol Hanish, “The Personal Is Political,” in Shulamith Firestone and Anne Koedt, eds., Notes from the Second Year: Women’s Liberation, 1970, available at http://web.archive.org/web/20080515014413/http://scholar.alexanderstreet.com/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=2259.

  56. Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open.

  57. Robert O. Self, All in the Family: The Realignment of American Democracy since the 1960s (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012), Chapter 3.

  58. Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, 3 vols. (Manchester, NH: Extending Horizons Books, Porter Sargent Publishers, 1973).

  59. A list of 198 tactics appears in vol. 2 of Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action. The list can be found at http://www.aeinstein.org/organizations103a.html.

  60. Sheryl Gay Stolberg, “Shy U.S. Intellectual Created Playbook Used in a Revolution,” New York Times, February 16, 2011.

  61. Todd Gitlin, Letters to a Young Activist (New York: Basic Books, 2003), 84, 53.

  26 Frames, Paradigms, Discourses, and Narratives

  1. Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies (London: Routledge, 1947).

  2. Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1966).

  3. Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 10–11, 2–3. William James, Principles of Psychology, vol. 2 (New York: Cosimo, 2007). The relevant chapter first appeared in the journal Mind. James observed the importance of selective attention, intimate involvement, and non-contradiction by what is otherwise known, and how there can be a variety of sub-worlds, each “real after its own fashion” before, according to Goffman, copping out.

  4. Peter Simonson, “The Serendipity of Merton’s Communications Research,” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 17, no. 1 (January 2005): 277–297. One side effect of this collaboration was that Merton brought C. Wright Mills (the “outstanding sociologist of his age”) to join the research, but Mills struggled with the statistical analyses of his project and was eventually fired by Lazarsfeld, which helps explain his appearance in The Sociological Imagination under the heading of “Abstracted Empiricism,” that produce details that “no matter how numerous, do not convince us having anything worth having convictions about.” The viciousness of the attacks led to Mills being virtually excommunicated by mainstream sociologists. John H. Summers, “Perpetual Revelations: C. Wright Mills and Paul Lazarsfeld,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 608, no. 25 (November 2006): 25–40.

  5. Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Robert K. Merton, “Mass Communication, Popular Taste, and Organized Social Action,” in L. Bryson, ed., The Communication of Ideas (New York: Harper, 1948), 95–188.

  6. M. E. McCombs and D. L. Shaw, “The Agenda-setting Function of Mass Media,” Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (1972): 176–187; Dietram A. Scheufele and David Tewksbury, “Framing, Agenda Setting, and Priming: The Evolution of the Media Effects Models,” Journal of Communication 57 (2007): 9–20.

  7. McCabe, “Agenda-setting Research: A Bibliographic Essay,” Political Communication Review 1 (1976): 3; E. M. Rogers and J. W. Dearing, “Agenda-setting Research: Where Has It Been? Where Is It Going?” in J. A. Anderson, ed., Communication Yearbook 11 (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), 555–594.

  8. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2003), xvi.

  9. Ibid., 6.

  10. J. K. Galbraith, The Affluent Society (London: Pelican, 1962), 16–27.

  11. Sal Restivo, “The Myth of the Kuhnian Revolution,” in Randall Collins, ed., Sociological Theory
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983), 293–305.

  12. Aristides Baltas, Kostas Gavroglu, and Vassiliki Kindi, “A Discussion with Thomas S. Kuhn,” in James Conant and John Haugeland, eds., The Road Since Structure (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 308.

  13. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 5, 16–17. For an accessible intellectual biography see Alexander Bird, “Thomas S. Kuhn (18 July 1922–17 June 1996),” Social Studies of Science 27, no. 3 (1997): 483–502. See also Alexander Bird, Thomas Kuhn (Chesham, UK: Acumen and Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

  14. Kuhn, Scientific Revolutions, 77.

  15. E. Garfield, “A Different Sort of Great Books List: The 50 Twentieth-century Works Most Cited in the Arts & Humanities Citation Index, 1976–1983,” Current Contents 16 (April 20, 1987): 3–7.

  16. Sheldon Wolin, “Paradigms and Political Theory,” in Preston King and B. C. Parekh, eds., Politics and Experience (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 134–135.

  17. The Wedge Project, The Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture, http://www.antievolution.org/features/wedge.pdf.

  18. Intelligent Design and Evolution Awareness Center, http://www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/1160. To add to the mix, some of Kuhn’s critics were also critical of evolutionary theory, notably Steven Fuller, the author of both Thomas Kuhn: A Philosophical History for Our Times (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000) and Dissent Over Descent: Intelligent Design’s Challenge to Darwinism (London: Icon Books, 2008). See also Jerry Fodor with Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini, What Darwin Got Wrong (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2010).

  19. A survey of high school teachers of biology showed about one in eight U.S. high school biology teachers did present creationism or intelligent design in a positive light in the classroom, and about the same number raised it at some point for discussion, http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,357181,00.html. While it might be surprising that so many biology teachers are out of tune with the dominant scientific paradigm of the time, the important point is that they are still far more in tune with this paradigm than with the general public support for creationism and/or intelligent design. A 2008 Gallup poll suggests 44 percent of Americans believe that “God created man in present form” and another 36 percent believe that God guided man’s development. Only 14 percent did not think that God played any part in the process. Gallup, Evolution, Creationism, Intelligent Design, http://www.gallup.com/poll/21814/evolution-creationism-intelligent-design.aspx polling for id (2008).

  20. A useful guide to these various positions, and the controversies surrounding evolution, is found on the TalkOrigins Archive (www.talkorigins.org).

  21. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977, edited by C. Gordon (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1980), 197.

  22. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archeology of the Human Science (London: Tavistock Publications, 1970).

  23. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (London: Penguin, 1991).

  24. Michel Foucault, “The Subject and Power,” Critical Inquiry 8, no. 4 (Summer 1982): 777–795.

  25. Julian Reid, “Life Struggles: War, Discipline, and Biopolitics in the Thought of Michel Foucault,” Social Text 86, 24: 1, Spring 2006.

  26. Michel Foucault, Society Must Be Defended, translated by David Macey (London: Allen Lane, 2003), 49–53, 179.

  27. Michel Foucault, Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews (Oxford: Blackwell, 1977), 27.

  28. Foucault, Power/Knowledge, 145.

  29. In J. G. Merquior’s critique, Foucault (London: Fontana Press, 1985), he is described as being in a French tradition of philosophical glamour, combining brilliant literary gifts with a “theorizing wantonly free of academic discipline.”

  30. Robert Scholes and Robert Kellogg, The Nature of Narrative (London: Oxford University Press, 1968).

  31. Roland Barthes and Lionel Duisit, “An Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative,” New Literary History 6, no. 2 (Winter 1975): 237–272. Originally published in Communications 8, 1966, as “Introduction à l’analyse structurale des récits.” This journal set in motion the structuralist study of narrative in 1966 with a special issue on the topic.

  32. Editor’s Note, Critical Inquiry, Autumn 1980. The volume was published as W. T. J. Mitchell, On Narrative (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).

  33. Francesca Polletta, Pang Ching, Bobby Chen, Beth Gharrity Gardner, and Alice Motes, “The Sociology of Storytelling,” Annual Review of Sociology 37 (2011): 109–130.

  34. Mark Turner, The Literary Mind (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 14–20.

  35. William Colvin, “The Emergence of Intelligence,” Scientific American 9, no. 4 (November 1998): 44–51.

  36. Molly Patterson and Kristen Renwick Monroe, “Narrative in Political Science,” Annual Review of Political Science 1 (June 1998): 320.

  37. Jane O’Reilly, “The Housewife’s Moment of Truth,” Ms., Spring 1972, 54. Cited by Francesca Polletta, It Was Like a Fever: Storytelling in Protest and Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 48–50.

  38. John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, eds., Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime and Militancy (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2001).

  39. See, for example Jay Rosen, “Press Think Basics: The Master Narrative in Journalism,” September 8, 2003, available at http://journalism.nyu.edu/pubzone/weblogs/pressthink/2003/09/08/basics_master.html.

  27 Race, Religion, and Elections

  1. William Safire, “On Language: Narrative,” New York Times, December 5, 2004. By the same token, Al Gore had been criticized during the 2000 presidential debates for telling “tall tales.” The problem, as Francesca Polletta noted, was Gore lacked a gift for “persuasive storytelling,” and that intellectual policy wonks were less able to make appeals to emotions. Francesca Polletta, It Was Like a Fever: Storytelling in Protest and Politics (see chap. 26, n. 37).

  2. Frank Lutz, Words that Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear (New York: Hyperion, 1997), 149–157.

  3. http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article4443.htm.

  4. George Lakoff, Don’t Think of an Elephant!: Know Your Values and Frame the Debate (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company, 2004).

  5. George Lakoff, Whose Freedom? The Battle Over America’s Most Important Idea (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2006).

  6. Drew Westen, The Political Brain (New York: Public Affairs, 2007), 99–100, 138, 147, 346.

  7. Steven Pinker, “Block That Metaphor!,” The New Republic, October 9, 2006.

  8. Lutz, Words that Work, 3. As with many other effective political communicators, he went back to Orwell’s famous 1946 essay on “Politics and the English Language,” which stressed the importance of plain English; brevity; avoiding pretentious, meaningless, and foreign words; and jargon. See http://www.orwell.ru/library/essays/politics/english/e_polit/.

  9. Donald R. Kinder, “Communication and Politics in the Age of Information,” in David O. Sears, Leonie Huddy, and Robert Jervis, eds., Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 372, 374–375.

  10. Norman Mailer, Miami and the Siege of Chicago: An Informal History of the Republican and Democratic Conventions of 1968 (New York: World Publishing Company, 1968), 51.

  11. Jill Lepore, “The Lie Factory: How Politics Became a Business,” The New Yorker, September 24, 2012.

  12. Joseph Napolitan, The Election Game and How to Win It (New York: Doubleday, 1972); Larry Sabato, The Rise of Political Consultants: New Ways of Winning Elections (New York: Basic Books, 1981).

  13. Dennis Johnson, No Place for Amateurs: How Political Consultants Are Reshaping American Democracy (New York: Routledge, 2011), xiii.

  14. James Thurber, “Introduction to the Stud
y of Campaign Consultants,” in James Thurber, ed., Campaign Warriors: The Role of Political Consultants in Elections (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2000), 2.

  15. Dan Nimmo, The Political Persuaders: The Techniques of Modern Election Campaigns (New York: Prentice Hall, 1970), 41.

  16. James Perry, The New Politics: The Expanding Technology of Political Manipulation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968).

  17. The origins of the ad and its impact are discussed in Robert Mann, Daisy Petals and Mushroom Clouds: LBJ, Barry Goldwater, and the Ad That Changed American Politics (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2011).