18. Joe McGinniss, Selling of the President (London: Penguin, 1970), 76; Kerwin Swint, Dark Genius: The Influential Career of Legendary Political Operative and Fox News Founder Roger Ailes (New York: Union Square Press, 2008).
19. Richard Whalen, Catch the Falling Flag (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1972), 135.
20. James Boyd, “Nixon’s Southern Strategy: It’s All in the Charts,” New York Times, May 17, 1970.
21. Phillips eventually came to object to the conservative politics he had helped to promote and wrote of an “Erring Republican Majority.” He moved to the left, for example, Kevin Phillips, American Theocracy: The Peril and Politics of Radical Religion, Oil, and Borrowed Money in the 21st Century (New York: Viking, 2006).
22. Nelson Polsby, “An Emerging Republican Majority?” National Affairs, Fall 1969.
23. Richard M. Scammon and Ben J. Wattenberg, The Real Majority (New York: Coward McCann, 1970).
24. Lou Cannon, President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime (New York: PublicAffairs, 2000), 21; Ewen, PR! A Social History of Spin (see chap. 2, n. 28), 396.
25. Perry, The New Politics, 16, 21–31. He employed Spencer and Roberts, who had worked for Nelson Rockefeller against Barry Goldwater in 1966, and said afterwards that he would always in the future use “professional managers.”
26. William Rusher, Making of the New Majority Party (Lanham, MD: Sheed and Ward, 1975). Rusher was making a case for a new conservative party, but his argument worked for an insurgency within the Republican Party.
27. Kiron K. Skinner, Serhiy Kudelia, Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, and Condoleezza Rice, The Strategy of Campaigning: Lessons from Ronald Reagan and Boris Yeltsin (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007), 132–133.
28. David Domke and Kevin Coe, The God Strategy: How Religion Became a Political Weapon in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 16–17, 101.
29. John Brady, Bad Boy: The Life and Politics of Lee Atwater (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1996), 34–35, 70.
30. Richard Fly, “The Guerrilla Fighter in Bush’s War Room,” Business Week, June 6, 1988.
31. By the time of Atwater’s death, only the first volume, The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1982), had been published. Caro is now up to volume 4. In his admiration for Caro, Atwater was by no means unique among political strategists.
32. John Pitney, Jr., The Art of Political Warfare (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000), 12–15.
33. Mary Matalin, James Carville, and Peter Knobler, All’s Fair: Love, War and Running for President (New York: Random House, 1995), 54.
34. Brady, Bad Boy, 56.
35. Matalin, Carville, and Knobler, All’s Fair, 48.
36. Brady, Bad Boy, 117–118.
37. Ibid., 136.
38. Sidney Blumenthal, Pledging Allegiance: The Last Campaign of the Cold War (New York: Harper Collins, 1990), 307–308.
39. Eric Benson, “Dukakis’s Regret,” New York Times, June 17, 2012.
40. Domke and Coe, The God Strategy, 29.
41. Sidney Blumenthal, The Permanent Campaign: Inside the World of Elite Political Operatives (New York: Beacon Press, 1980).
42. Matalin, Carville, and Knobler, All’s Fair, 186, 263, 242, 208, 225.
43. The document was from Quintus Tullius Cicero to his brother Marcus, running for Consul in 64 BCE. “Campaign Tips from Cicero: The Art of Politics from the Tiber to the Potomac,” commentary by James Carville, Foreign Affairs, May/June 2012.
44. James Carville and Paul Begala, Buck Up, Suck Up… And Come Back When You Foul Up (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), 50.
45. Ibid., 108, 65.
46. For a defense of negative campaigning, see Frank Rich, “Nuke ’Em,” New York Times, June 17, 2012.
47. Kim Leslie Fridkin and Patrick J. Kenney, “Do Negative Messages Work?: The Impact of Negativity on Citizens’ Evaluations of Candidates,” American Politics Research 32 (2004): 570.
48. A complicating factor in 1992 was the independent candidacy of Ross Perot. Although his campaign was somewhat chaotic, he managed to gain almost 20 percent of the popular vote. Although he seems to have taken equally from both Bush and Clinton, on balance he hurt Bush more.
49. Domke and Coe, The God Strategy, 117.
50. Leading to headline: “Pat Robertson Says Feminists Want to Kill Kids, Be Witches,” Ibid., 133.
51. James McLeod, “The Sociodrama of Presidential Politics: Rhetoric, Ritual, and Power in the Era of Teledemocracy,” American Anthropologist, New Series 10, no. 2 (June 1999): 359–373. Quayle was not helped by an incident in June 1992 when he erroneously corrected an elementary school student’s spelling of “potato” to “potatoe.”
52. David Paul Kuhn, “Obama Models Campaign on Reagan Revolt,” Politico, July 24, 2007.
53. David Plouffe, The Audacity to Win: The Inside Story and Lessons of Barack Obama’s Historic Victory (New York: Viking, 2009), 236–238, 378–379. For a full account of the campaign, see John Heilemann and Mark Halperin, Game Change (New York: Harper Collins, 2010).
54. John B. Judis and Ruy Teixeira, The Emerging Democratic Majority (New York: Lisa Drew, 2002).
55. Peter Slevin, “For Clinton and Obama, a Common Ideological Touchstone,” Washington Post, March 25, 2007.
56. She was quoting The Economist: “Plato on the Barricades,” The Economist, May 13–19, 1967, 14. The thesis, entitled “THERE IS ONLY THE FIGHT… An Analysis of the Alinsky Model,” was circulated by largely right-wing bloggers during 2008. See http://www.gopublius.com/HCT/HillaryClintonThesis.pdf.
28 The Rise of the Management Class
1. Paul Uselding, “Management Thought and Education in America: A Centenary Appraisal,” in Jeremy Atack, ed., Business and Economic History, Second Series 10 (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1981), 16.
2. Matthew Stewart, The Management Myth: Why the Experts Keep Getting It Wrong (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009), 41. See also Jill Lepore, “Not So Fast: Scientific Management Started as a Way to Work. How Did It Become a Way of Life?” The New Yorker, October 12, 2009.
3. Frederick W Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management (Digireads.com: 2008), 14. First published 1911.
4. Charles D. Wrege and Amadeo G. Perroni, “Taylor’s Pig-Tale: A Historical Analysis of Frederick W. Taylor’s Pig-Iron Experiments,” Academy of Management Journal 17, no. 1 (1974): 26.
5. Jill R. Hough and Margaret A. White, “Using Stories to Create Change: The Object Lesson of Frederick Taylor’s ‘Pig-Tale,’” Journal of Management 27 (2001): 585–601.
6. Robert Kanigel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Viking Penguin, 1999); Daniel Nelson, “Scientific Management, Systematic Management, and Labor, 1880–1915,” The Business History Review 48, no. 4 (Winter 1974): 479–500. See chapter on Taylor in A. Tillett, T. Kempner, and G. Wills, eds., Management Thinkers (London: Penguin, 1970).
7. Judith A. Merkle, Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 44–45.
8. Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation, 3rd edn. (New York: Transaction Books, 1993), 242.
9. Oscar Kraines, “Brandeis’ Philosophy of Scientific Management,” The Western Political Quarterly 13, no. 1 (March 1960): 201.
10. Kanigel, The One Best Way, 505.
11. V. I. Lenin, “The Immediate Tasks of the Soviet Government,” Pravda, April 28, 1918. Available at http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1918/mar/x03.htm.
12. Merkle, Management and Ideology, 132. See also Daniel A. Wren and Arthur G. Bedeian, “The Taylorization of Lenin: Rhetoric or Reality?” International Journal of Social Economics 31, no. 3 (2004): 287–299.
13. Mary Parker Follett, The New State (New York: Longmans, 1918), cited by Ellen S. O’Connor, “Integrating Follett: History, Philosophy and Management,” Journal of Management History 6, no. 4 (2000): 181.
14. Peter Mi
ller and Ted O’Leary, “Hierarchies and American Ideals, 1900–1940,” Academy of Management Review 14, no. 2 (April 1989): 250–265.
15. Pauline Graham, ed., Mary Parker Follett: Prophet of Management (Washington, DC: Beard Books, 2003).
16. Mary Parker Follett, The New State: Group Organization—The Solution of Popular Government (New York: Longmans Green, 1918), 3.
17. Irving L. Janis, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascos (Andover, UK: Cengage Learning, 1982)
18. This is drawn from Ellen S. O’Connor, “The Politics of Management Thought: A Case Study of the Harvard Business School and the Human Relations School,” Academy of Management Review 24, no. 1 (1999): 125–128.
19. O’Connor, “The Politics of Management Thought,” 124–125.
20. Elton Mayo, The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (New York: MacMillan, 1933) and Roethlisberger and Dickson, Management and the Worker (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939); Richard Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge: A History of the Hawthorne Eexperiments (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991); R. H. Franke and J. D. Kaul, “The Hawthorne Experiments: First Statistical Interpretation,” American Sociological Review 43 (1978): 623–643; Stephen R. G. Jones, “Was There a Hawthorne Effect?” The American Journal of Sociology 98, no. 3 (November 1992): 451–468.
21. On Mayo’s life, see Richard C. S. Trahair, Elton Mayo: The Humanist Temper (New York: Transaction Publishers, 1984). Of particular interest is the damning foreword by Abraham Zaleznik, who joined the human relations team at Harvard as Mayo was leaving.
22. Barbara Heyl, “The Harvard ‘Pareto Circle,’ ” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 4 (1968): 316–334; Robert T. Keller, “The Harvard ‘Pareto Circle’ and the Historical Development of Organization Theory,” Journal of Management 10 (1984): 193.
23. Chester Irving Barnard, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938), 294–295.
24. Peter Miller and Ted O’Leary, “Hierarchies and American Ideals, 1900–1940,” Academy of Management Review 14, no. 2 (April 1989): 250–265; William G. Scott, “Barnard on the Nature of Elitist Responsibility,” Public Administration Review 42, no. 3 (May–June 1982): 197–201.
25. Scott, “Barnard on the Nature of Elitist Responsibility,” 279.
26. Barnard, The Functions of the Executive, 71.
27. James Hoopes, “Managing a Riot: Chester Barnard and Social Unrest,” Management Decision 40 (2002): 10.
29 The Business of Business
1. I have drawn particularly on Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1998) and Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
2. Chernow, Titan, 148–150.
3. Allan Nevins, John D. Rockefeller: The Heroic Age of American Enterprise, 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940).
4. Ibid., 433.
5. Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform (New York: Vintage, 1955), 216–217.
6. The book made up of her articles is still in print: Ida Tarbell, The History of the Standard Oil Company (New York: Buccaneer Books, 1987); Steven Weinberg, Taking on the Trust: The Epic Battle of Ida Tarbell and John D. Rockefeller (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008).
7. Yergin, The Prize, 93.
8. Ibid., 26.
9. Chernow, Titan, 230.
10. Steve Watts, The People’s Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century (New York: Vintage Books, 2006), 16; Henry Ford, My Life and Work (New York: Classic Books, 2009; first published 1922).
11. Cited in Watts, The People’s Tycoon, 190.
12. Richard Tedlow, “The Struggle for Dominance in the Automobile Market: The Early Years of Ford and General Motors,” Business and Economic History Second Series, 17 (1988): 49–62.
13. Watts, The People’s Tycoon, 456, 480.
14. David Farber, Alfred P. Sloan and the Triumph of General Motors (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 41.
15. Alfred Sloan, My Years with General Motors (New York: Crown Publishing, 1990), 47, 52, 53–54.
16. Farber, Alfred P. Sloan, 50.
17. Sloan, My Years with General Motors, 71.
18. Ibid., 76. See also John MacDonald, The Game of Business (New York: Doubleday: 1975), Chapter 3.
19. Sloan, My Years with General Motors, 186–187.
20. Ibid., 195–196.
21. Sidney Fine, “The General Motors Sit-Down Strike: A Re-examination,” The American Historical Review 70, no. 3, April 1965, 691–713.
22. Adolf Berle and Gardiner Means, The Modern Corporation and Private Property (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967), 46, 313.
30 Management Strategy
1. Solow had the distinction of inspiring two novels, The Unpossessed, by his ex-wife Tess Slesinger, and James T. Farrell’s posthumously published Sam Holman, which has a theme of intellectual brilliance transformed into mediocrity through the political journey of the 1930s. McDonald appears as Holman’s (Solow’s) closest friend, a source of skepticism and conscience.
2. Amitabh Pal, interview with John Kenneth Galbraith, The Progressive, October 2000, available at http://www.progressive.org/mag_amitpalgalbraith.
3. Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand (Harvard, MA: Belknap Press, 1977), 1
4. Galbraith, The New Industrial State, 2nd edn. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 59, 42.
5. Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation, see Chapter 28, n. 8.
6. Ibid., Introduction.
7. Peter Drucker, The Practice of Management (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1954), 3, 245–247.
8. Ibid., 11.
9. Ibid., 177. See his observations in his autobiography, Peter Drucker, Adventures of a Bystander (New York: Transaction Publishers, 1994).
10. This account appeared in an appendix to the book’s 1983 edition, and was repeated in an introduction he wrote to a 1990 edition of Sloan’s My Years with General Motors. It also appears in his autobiography.
11. Christopher D. McKenna, “Writing the Ghost-Writer Back In: Alfred Sloan, Alfred Chandler, John McDonald and the Intellectual Origins of Corporate Strategy,” Management & Organizational History 1, no. 2 (May 2006): 107–126.
12. Jon McDonald and Dan Seligman, A Ghost’s Memoir: The Making of Alfred P. Sloan’s My Years with General Motors (Boston: MIT Press, 2003), 16.
13. The lawyers were worried about references to Sloan’s early plan to take on Ford. A phrase in the original plan, stating that the company was not after a monopoly, might concede the point that a monopoly was an option.
14. Edith Penrose, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959). In 1995, she described Chandler’s “analytical structure congruent with my own” (Foreword to the third edition). John Kay, Foundations of Corporate Success: How Business Strategies Add Value (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) stresses Penrose’s foundational role, 335.
15. Alfed Chandler, “Introduction,” in 1990 edition of Strategy and Structure (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), v. In 1956, when he had first published on the topic, Chandler had described as long-range policy what he now called strategy.
16. Chandler, “Introduction,” Strategy and Structure, 13.
17. Chandler saw other examples of the same theme, for example with DuPont. Alfred D. Chandler and Stephen Salsbury, Pierre S. du Pont and the Making of the Modern Corporation (New York: Harper & Row, 1971).
18. Chandler, Strategy and Structure, 309. Robert F. Freeland, “The Myth of the M-Form? Governance, Consent, and Organizational Change,” The American Journal of Sociology 102 (1996): 483–526; Robert F. Freeland, “When Organizational Messiness Works,” Harvard Business Review 80 (May 2002): 24–25.
19. Freeland, “The Myth of the M-Form,” 516.
20. Neil Fligstein, “The Spread of the Multidivisional Form Among Large Firms, 1919–1979,” American Sociological Review 50 (
1985): 380.
21. McKenna, “Writing the Ghost-Writer Back In.” Other large firms studied by Chandler, such as IBM and AT&T, would also have discouraged too much exploration of the impact of antitrust legislation on corporate structure.
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