22. Edward D. Berkowitz and Kim McQuaid, Creating the Welfare State: The Political Economy of Twentieth Century Reform (Lawrence, KS: Praeger, 1992), 233–234. Cited by Richard R. John, “Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.’s, ‘The Visible Hand’ after Twenty Years,” The Business History Review 71, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 190. Sanford M. Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900–1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 8. John, “Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents,” 190.
23. Louis Galambos, “What Makes Us Think We Can Put Business Back into American History?” Business and Economic History 21 (1992): 1–11.
24. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Witch Doctors: Making Sense of the Management Gurus (New York: Random House, 1968), 106.
25. See foreword to the 1986 edition of Managing for Results.
26. Stewart, The Management Myth, see Chapter 28, n. 2, 153.
27. Walter Kiechel III, The Lords of Strategy: The Secret Intellectual History of the New Corporate World (Boston: The Harvard Business Press, 2010), xi–xii, 4.
28. Kenneth Andrews, The Concept of Corporate Strategy (Homewood, IL: R. D. Irwin, 1971), 29.
29. Henry Mitzberg, Bruce Ahlstrand, and Joseph Lampel, Strategy Safari: The Complete Guide Through the Wilds of Strategic Management (New York: The Free Press, 1998). See also the companion volume of readings, Strategy Bites Back: It Is Far More, and Less, Than You Ever Imagined (New York: Prentice Hall, 2005).
30. “The Guru: Igor Ansoff,” The Economist, July 18, 2008; Igor Ansoff, Corporate Strategy: An Analytic Approach to Business Policy for Growth and Expansion (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965).
31. Igor Ansoff, Corporate Strategy (London: McGraw-Hill, 1965), 120.
32. Stewart, The Management Myth, 157–158.
33. Kiechel, The Lords of Strategy, 26–27.
34. John A. Byrne, The Whiz Kids: Ten Founding Fathers of American Business—And the Legacy They Left Us (New York: Doubleday, 1993).
35. Samuel Huntington, The Common Defense: Strategic Programs in National Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961).
36. Mintzberg et al., Strategy Safari, 65.
37. Friedrich Hayek, “The Use of Knowledge in Society,” American Economic Review 35, no. 4 (1945): 519–530.
38. Aaron Wildavsky, “Does Planning Work?” The National Interest, Summer 1971, No. 24, 101. See also his “If Planning Is Everything Maybe It’s Nothing,” Policy Sciences 4 (1973): 127–153.
39. Cited in Mitzberg et al., Strategy Safari, 65.
40. Jack Welch, with John Byrne, Jack: Straight from the Gut (New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2003), 448. The letter was by Kevin Peppard. It appeared in Fortune Magazine, November 30, 1981, p. 17. See also Chapter 3 of Thomas O’Boyle, At Any Cost: Jack Welch, General Electric, and the Pursuit of Profit (New York: Vintage, 1999).
41. Henry Mintzberg, The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning (London: Prentice-Hall, 1994).
42. Igor Ansoff, “Critique of Henry Mintzberg’s ‘The Design School: Reconsidering the Basic Premises of Strategic Management,’ ” Strategic Management Journal 12, no. 6 (September 1991): 449–461.
31 Business as War
1. Albert Madansky, “Is War a Business Paradigm? A Literature Review,” The Journal of Private Equity 8 (Summer 2005): 7–12.
2. Wess Roberts, Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun (New York: Grand Central Publishing, 1989).
3. Dennis Laurie, From Battlefield to Boardroom: Winning Management Strategies in Today’s Global Business (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 235.
4. Douglas Ramsey, Corporate Warriors (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1987).
5. Aric Rindfleisch, “Marketing as Warfare: Reassessing a Dominant Metaphor—Questioning Military Metaphors’ Centrality in Marketing Parlance,” Business Horizons, September–October, 1996. For a skeptical look, although with a concluding endorsement of Sun Tzu, see John Kay, “Managers from Mars,” Financial Times, August 4, 1999.
6. On BCG see pp. 519.
7. Bruce Henderson, Henderson on Corporate Strategy (New York: HarperCollins, 1979), 9–10, 27.
8. Philip Kotler and Ravi Singh, “Marketing Warfare in the 1980s,” Journal of Business Strategy (Winter 1981): 30–41. The start of this line of work has been attributed to Alfred R. Oxenfeldt and William L. Moore, “Customer or Competitor: Which Guideline for Marketing?” Management Review (August 1978): 43–38.
9. Al Ries and Jack Trout, Marketing Warfare (New York: Plume, 1986); Robert Duro and Bjorn Sandstrom, The Basic Principles of Marketing Warfare (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1987); Gerald A. Michaelson, Winning the Marketing War (Lanham, MD: Abt Books, 1987).
10. In addition to editions of The Art of War and other Chinese masters, see, for example, the titles collected by Madansky, including Foo Check Teck and Peter Hugh Grinyer, Organizing Strategy: Sun Tzu Business Warcraft (Butterworth: Heinemann Asia, 1994); Donald Krause, The Art of War for Executives (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1995); Gary Gagliardi, The Art of War Plus The Art of Sales (Shoreline, WA: Clearbridge Publishing, 1999); Gerald A Michaelson, Sun Tzu: The Art of War for Managers: 50 Strategic Rules (Avon, MA: Adams Media Corporation, 2001).
11. Episodes: “Big Girls Don’t Cry”; “He Is Risen.” See http://www.hbo.com/the-sopranos/episodes/index.html.
12. Richard Greene and Peter Vernezze, eds., The Sopranos and Philosophy: I Kill Therefore I Am (Chicago: Open Court, 2004). In one episode, one of Soprano’s lieutenants, Paulie ‘Walnuts’ Gualtieri, reports that “Sun-TuhZoo” says: “A good leader is benevolent and unconcerned with fame.” He explains that “Sun-Tuh-Zoo” is the “Chinese Prince Machiavelli,” at which point his colleague Silvio Dante corrects him: “Tzu, Tzu! Sun Tzu, you fucking ass-kiss!” In the next episode, Paulie, trying to reestablish himself after a spell in prison, is listening to a tape of Sun Tzu while driving to his aunt’s neighborhood. At an appropriate moment, as the tape refers to catching an enemy by surprise, he comes across two brothers pruning trees in an area which they have just taken from one of Gualtieri’s friends. His tactics are similar to those used by the brothers: intimidation based on brute force. When they refuse to give the area back, Gualtieri hits one brother over the head with a shovel causing him to let go of the rope holding the other brother in the tree, who then plunges down. Not really Sun Tzu! (Series 5).
13. Marc R. McNeilly, Sun Tzu and the Art of Business (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
14. Khoo Kheng-Ho, Applying Sun Tzu’s Art of War in Managing Your Marriage (Malaysia: Pelanduk, 2002).
15. William Scott Wilson, The Lone Samurai: The Life of Miyamoto Musashi (New York: Kodansha International, 2004), 220; Miyamoto Musashi, The Book of Five Rings: A Classic Text on the Japanese Way of the Sword, translated by Thomas Cleary (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2005).
16. Thomas A. Green, ed., Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001).
17. George Stalk, Jr., “Time—The Next Source of Competitive Advantage,” Harvard Business Review 1 (August 1988): 41–51; George Stalk and Tom Hout, Competing Against Time: How Time-Based Competition Is Reshaping Global Markets (New York: The Free Press, 1990).
18. The two are also brought together in Chet Richards, Certain to Win: The Strategy of John Boyd as Applied to Business (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004).
19. A later book spoke about crushing more than outsmarting competitors, by such means as unleashing “massive and overwhelming force,” threatening their “profit sanctuaries,” and enticing them into retreat. This was not for the soft-hearted. “The common theme” in his ideas, he later observed, was that they were “about taking advantage to the point where competitors are left astounded by what’s happened.” George Stalk and Rob Lachenauer Hardball, Are You Playing to Play or Playing to Win? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2004); Jennifer Reingold, “The 10 Lives of George Stalk,” Fast Company.com
, December 19, 2007, http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/91/open_stalk.html.
32 The Rise of Economics
1. Mirowski, Machine Dreams, 12–17 (see chap. 12, n. 11). The term Cyborg only came into use in the 1960s to refer to humans with artificial, technological enhancements.
2. Duncan Luce and Howard Raiffa, Games and Decisions: Introduction and Critical Survey (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1957), 10.
3. Ibid., 18.
4. Sylvia Nasar, A Beautiful Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988).
5. John F. Nash, Jr., Essays on Game Theory, with an introduction by K. Binmore (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1996).
6. Roger B. Myerson, “Nash Equilibrium and the History of Economic Theory,” Journal of Economic Literature 37 (1999): 1067.
7. Mirowski, Machine Dreams, 369.
8. Richard Zeckhauser, “Distinguished Fellow: Reflections on Thomas Schelling,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 3, no. 2 (Spring 1989): 159.
9. Milton Friedman, Price Theory: A Provisional Text, revised edn. (Chicago: Aldine, 1966), 37. (cited by Mirowski)
10. Cited in Rakesh Khurana, From Higher Aims to Higher Hands: The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 239–240.
11. Ibid., 292, 307.
12. Cited by Ibid., 272.
13. Ibid., 253–254. 275, 268–269, 331.
14. Pankat Ghemawat, “Competition and Business Strategy in Historical Perspective,” The Business History Review 76, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 37–74, 44–45.
15. Interview with Seymour Tilles, October 24, 1996.
16. John A. Seeger, “Reversing the Images of BCG’s Growth/Share Matrix,” Strategic Management Journal 5 (1984): 93–97.
17. Herbert A. Simon. “From Substantive to Procedural Rationality,” in Spiro J. Latsis, ed., Method and Appraisal in Economics (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 140.
18. Michael Porter, Competitive Strategy Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors (New York: The Free Press, 1980).
19. Porter, Competitive Strategy, 3.
20. Mitzberg et al., Strategy Safari, 113 (see chap. 30, n. 29).
21. Porter, Competitive Strategy, 53, 86.
22. Porter, Competitive Advantage.
23. Michael Porter, Nicholas Argyres, and Anita M. McGahan, “An Interview with Michael Porter,” The Academy of Management Executive (1993–2005) 16, no. 2 (May 2002): 43–52.
24. Vance H. Fried and Benjamin M. Oviatt, “Michael Porter’s Missing Chapter: The Risk of Antitrust Violations,” Academy of Management Executive 3, no. 1 (1989): 49–56.
25. Adam J. Brandenburger and Barry J. Nalebuff, Co-Opetition (New York: Doubleday, 1996).
26. As demonstrated by Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coopetition.
27. Stewart, The Management Myth, 214–215.
33 Red Queens and Blue Oceans
1. Kathleen Eisenhardt, “Agency Theory: An Assessment and Review,” Academy of Management Review 14, no. 1 (1989): 57–74.
2. Justin Fox, The Myth of the Rational Market: A History of Risk, Reward, and Delusion on Wall Street (New York: Harper, 2009), 159–162.
3. Michael C. Jensen and William H. Meckling, “Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure,” Journal of Financial Economics 3 (1976): 302–360.
4. Michael C. Jensen, “Organization Theory and Methodology,” The Accounting Review 58, no. 2 (April 1983): 319–339.
5. Jensen, “Takeovers: Folklore and Science,” Harvard Business Review (November–December 1984), 109–121.
6. Cited by Fox, The Myth of the Rational Market, 274.
7. Paul M. Hirsch, Ray Friedman, and Mitchell P. Koza, “Collaboration or Paradigm Shift?: Caveat Emptor and the Risk of Romance with Economic Models for Strategy and Policy Research,” Organization Science 1, no. 1 (1990): 87–97.
8. Robert Hayes and William J. Abernathy, “Managing Our Way to Economic Decline,” Harvard Business Review (July 1980), 67–77.
9. Franklin Fisher, “Games Economists Play: A Noncooperative View,” RAND Journal of Economics 20, no. 1 (Spring 1989): 113.
10. Carl Shapiro, “The Theory of Business Strategy,” RAND Journal of Economics 20, no. 1 (Spring 1989): 125–137.
11. Richard P. Rumelt, Dan Schendel, and David J. Teece, “Strategic Management and Economics,” Strategic Management Journal 12 (Winter 1991): 5–29.
12. Garth Saloner, “Modeling, Game Theory, and Strategic Management,” Strategic Management Journal 12 (Winter 1991): 119–136. See also Colin F. Camerer, “Does Strategy Research Need Game Theory?” Strategic Management Journal 12 (Winter 1991): 137–152.
13. Richard L. Daft and Arie Y. Lewin, “Can Organization Studies Begin to Break Out of the Normal Science Straitjacket? An Editorial Essay,” Organization Science 1, no. 1 (1990): 1–9; Richard A. Bettis, “Strategic Management and the Straightjacket: An Editorial Essay,” Organization Science 2, no. 3 (August 1991): 315–319.
14. Sumantra Ghoshal, “Bad Management Theories Are Destroying Good Management Practices,” Academy of Management Learning and Education 4, no. 1 (2005): 85.
15. Timothy Clark and Graeme Salaman, “Telling Tales: Management Gurus’ Narratives and the Construction of Managerial Identity,” Journal of Management Studies 3, no. 2 (1998): 157. See also T. Clark and G. Salaman, “The Management Guru as Organizational Witchdoctor,” Organization 3, no. 1 (1996): 85–107.
16. James Champy, Reengineering Management: The Mandate for New Leadership (London: HarperBusiness, 1995), 7.
17. Michael Hammer and James Champy, Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution (London: HarperBusiness, 1993), 49.
18. Peter Case, “Remember Re-Engineering? The Rhetorical Appeal of a Managerial Salvation Device,” Journal of Management Studies 35, no. 4 (July 1991): 419–441.
19. Michael Hammer, “Reengineering Work: Don’t Automate, Obliterate,” Harvard Business Review, July/August 1990, 104.
20. Thomas Davenport and James Short, “The New Industrial Engineering: Information Technology and Business Process Redesign,” Sloan Management Review, Summer 1990; Keith Grint, “Reengineering History: Social Resonances and Business Process Reengineering,” Organization 1, no. 1 (1994): 179–201; Keith Grint and P. Case, “The Violent Rhetoric of Re-Engineering: Management Consultancy on the Offensive,” Journal of Management Studies 6, no. 5 (1998): 557–577.
21. Bradley G. Jackson, “Re-Engineering the Sense of Self: The Manager and the Management Guru,” Journal of Management Studies 33, no. 5 (September 1996): 571–590.
22. Hammer and Champy, Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution. See also John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Witch Doctors: Making Sense of the Management Gurus.
23. Iain L. Mangham, “Managing as a Performing Art,” British Journal of Management 1 (1990): 105–115.
24. Michael Hammer and Steven Stanton, The Reengineering Revolution: The Handbook (London: HarperCollins, 1995), 30, 52.
25. Michael Hammer, Beyond Reengineering: How the Process-Centered Organization Is Changing Our Work and Our Lives (London: HarperCollins, 1996), 321.
26. Champy, Reengineering Management, 204.
27. Ibid., 122.
28. Willy Stern, “Did Dirty Tricks Create a Best-Seller?” Business Week, August 7, 1995; Micklethwait and Wooldridge, The Witch Doctors, 23–25; Kiechel, The Lords of Strategy, 24 (see chap. 30, n. 27). Timothy Clark and David Greatbatch, “Management Fashion as Image-Spectacle: The Production of Best-Selling Management Books,” Management Communication Quarterly 17, no. 3 (February 2004): 396–424.
29. Michael Porter, “What Is Strategy?” Harvard Business Review, November–December 1996, 60–78.
30. Leigh Van Valen, “A New Evolutionary Law,” Evolutionary Theory I (1973): 20.
31. Ghemawat, “Competition and Business Strategy in Histo
rical Perspective,” 64.
32. Chan W. Kim and Renee Mauborgne, Blue Ocean Strategy: How to Create Uncontested Market Space (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2005), 6–7.
33. Ibid., 209–221.
Strategy Page 97
