Military Strategy Classics of Ancient China
Page 1
Military Strategy Classics
of
Ancient China
English & Chinese
The Art of War, Methods of War
36 Stratagems & Selected Teachings
Texts by
Sun Tzu, Wu Qi, Wei Liao, Sima Rangju, & Jiang Ziya
Edited by
Shawn Conners
Translated by
Chen Song
Introduction
Wearing the attire of a Confucian scholar, Wu Qi attended an audience with Lord Wen of Wei to discuss military matters.Lord Wen of Wei announced, “I do not have much interest in military matters.”
Wu Qi replied, “From plain visible facts, I can deduce the hidden. From the past, I can foretell the future. How can your Lordship sincerely say that he has no interest in this subject?”
Interest in military superiority has existed among warriors, commanders, scholars and students, since the dawn of civilization. In the West, the ancient classic stories of Beowulf, Homer and Julius Caesar are, even centuries later, required reading in high schools and universities. This familiarity with the military achievements of the greatest warriors in our collective history is not limited to military scholars. Students taking Latin are required to read the military strategies of Julius Caesar: Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres. Students of civics and law classes will learn from Machiavelli that the ends justify the means. Students of history will read the military exploits of Philip of Macedon, his son Alexander; Napoleon Bonaparte and his aide, Baron de Jomini; as well as Generals Lee and Grant from the American Civil War. Successful leaders in both Eastern and Western civilization have been, as Wu Qi rightly guessed, very much interested in military strategy.
As was the case in ancient Western civilization, the ancient Chinese Yellow River valley civilization has been engaged in military activity since the dawn of their recorded history[1]. The area is home to the longest continuing civilization known to scholars. It is written that in the 29th century BCE, the first Great Sovereign of China, Fu Xi (伏羲) was born. According to legend, the land was swept by a great flood and only Fu Xi and his sister Nüwa survived. They then retired to the mythological Kunlun Mountain to pray for Heavenly guidance. Fu Xi and Nüwa used clay to create human figures, and with the divine power entrusted to them, made the clay figures come alive. Fu Xi then came to rule over his descendants for more than 100 years. Fu Xi taught his subjects to cook, to fish with nets, and to hunt with weapons made of iron.
The ancient Chinese were involved in frequent wars of unification, expansion and defense of their territories. They developed warfare on a sophisticated level to meet these demands. China produced massive infantry-based armies and navies which battled for control of the rivers of China.
As the implements of war were analyzed and improved upon, infantrymen employed a variety of more efficient weapons made of iron. Dagger-axes came in various lengths from nine to eighteen feet, and were used as thrusting spears with a slashing blade. A typical heavy infantryman may have been equipped with armor consisting of a leather jerkin covered with narrow bronze plates and a hardened leather helmet. His main weaponry would be a pole-arm with an iron head and a bronze dagger-axe for a secondary weapon. Heavy infantry would have been formed into large, close formations for battles.
The Qin later began producing stronger iron swords, crossbows and the compound bow. Another Chinese innovation allowed a crossbow to be rendered useless simply by removing two pins, preventing enemies from capturing a working model. The stirrup was also adopted at this time. Stirrups gave cavalry men greater balance and crucially allowed them to leverage the weight of the horse in a charge, without being unseated.
Qin army formations and tactics can be understood somewhat from the Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang found in the tomb of the First Emperor. There were over 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which are still buried in the pits near Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum. The formations revealed that light infantry were first deployed as shock troops and skirmishers. They were followed by the main body of the army, consisting of heavy infantry. Cavalry and chariots were positioned behind the heavy infantry, used for flanking or charging. In order to counter the threat from the nomadic invaders of the time, the Qin began construction of the Great Wall, the building of which would last for centuries. The walls and fortifications would ultimately be 5,500 miles long, when counting all of its branches.
Later, more significant Chinese military inventions and improvements would follow. In the 9th century of the Common Era, the Chinese were the first to develop gunpowder, followed in the 10th century by the invention of the first gunpowder firearms. The first guns were spear-like weapons made of bamboo, called fire lances (火枪). These short-ranged, one-shot, disposable weapons were often held in racks on city walls and gave Chinese defenders a tremendous tactical and psychological advantage when fired in volleys. They were ideal for dealing with enemies trying to scale city walls, or for holding the enemy at bay behind a breached gate. They were in widespread use by the time of the Song Dynasty in the 12th century.
As was the case in Western counterpart, the Roman Empire, successive leaders extended China’s boundaries primarily by military conquest. However, by the time of the Han Dynasty and the opening of the “Silk Road” trade routes, the teachings of Confucius had become the accepted canon of moral and political thought in China. Confucian scholars revised a variety of Chinese classic military texts to bring the writings more in line with Confucian ideals. This practice was continued by scholars of Buddhism and Taoism. Some of the classic texts of China therefore contain anachronous or historically questionable content. So important was the perception of a ruler being anointed by Heaven, that some of the texts may now contain material much different than originally recorded, such as in the Three Strategies of Huang Shigong.
Before the discovery of the First Emperor’s tomb in 1972, students wishing to read historic military accounts of ancient China in The Art of War by Sun Tzu or The Book of Wuzi by Wu Qi might have had to order the book from a rare book store, or from mainland China itself. Today, The Art of War has become required reading for many students in legal disciplines, the field of business management, and basic Eastern philosophy classes. A modern survey of the business section of a local book store might yield titles such as, The Art of War for Managers, Sun Tzu and the Art of Business and The Art of Command by Wei Liaozi. Strategic wisdom from Sun Tzu, Wei Liao and other Chinese generals has become part of our lexicon, such as the axioms: All warfare is based on deception by Sun Tzu, and Sheath a dagger in a smile from the Thirty Six Stratagems.
Chinese cinema, novels and martial arts techniques have also permeated Western culture to a profound degree. Many of the names of the ancient Worthy of China may seem familiar to even casual lay readers. The recent international proliferation of Chinese wuxia[2] has brought classic Chinese novels such as Water Margin and The Romance of the Three Kingdoms to Western audiences. The battles won by Sun Tzu and Jiāng Zǐyá have become the epic backdrop for modern international films, such as Hero (2002), Red Cliff (2008), and The Warring States (2011).
Military Strategy Classics of Ancient China presents modern translations of eight of the more important and relevant military texts which have survived the ages, and gained new prominence among Western students of Eastern military strategy and the martial arts philosophy. Exact dating of each text has never been agreed upon; however, the eight texts are presented in close approximation to chronological order, from the 11th century BCE through the 7th century of the Common Era. Each text in Chen Song’s groundbreaking translation is p
resented in modern English, followed by Chinese characters.
Shawn Conners, March 2013
Included Texts
The Six Secret Teachings (六韬) is a well-known and somewhat revolutionary text on civil and military strategy traditionally attributed to the legendary figure Jiāng Zǐyá (also known as Tai Gong Wang) presented in the format of a dialogue between King Wen (Zhou Chang) and Jiāng Zǐyá. This text is the earliest of the collected works in this edition, and the use of divination and astrology differs significantly from this work and later works. The text is believed to have been originally written in the Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century BCE) with sections added as late as the Warring States period.
The Art of War (孙子兵法) Sun Wu (also known as Sun Tzu) expounds on the importance of military strategy and tactics, in particular the topics of assessing the opponent, positioning forces, and careful analysis of the enemy, in each of nine situations and terrains. Each of the 13 chapters is transcribed as a lesson by Sun Tzu, traditionally starting with the phrase “Master Sun said.” The Art of War is still considered one of the most important military texts ever compiled. It is believed to have been written during the late Spring and Autumn period or the early Warring States period (c. 470 BCE).
The Methods of War (司马法) is a military text attributed to Sima Rangju which discusses concepts of military theory, as well as administration and propriety: laws, regulations, discipline, tactics, and strategy. It is alternatively known as Sima Fa, Sima Art of War, Methods of Sima, or Principles of Sima. The title “Da Sima” is translated in this edition as “Minister of War”. It is believed to have been developed in the state of Qi during the mid-Warring States period (c. 430 BCE).
The Book of Wuzi (吴子) is a classic Chinese work on military strategy attributed to Wu Qi. It is also sometimes referred to as the Wuzi, Wuzi Art of War or The Book of Wu Qi. In an ongoing dialogue, Lord Wen of Wei (魏文侯) and his son, Lord Wu of Wei (魏武侯) ask Master Wu Qi questions about war theory and strategy, seeking to clarify earlier teachings and analyze historic military maneuvers. It is believed to have been written during the middle of the Warring States period (c. 420 BCE).
The Book of Wei Liaozi (尉缭子) is a text which considers military strategy, while discussing both a civil and a military approach to conducting state affairs. Recommendations are included for ruling over the army, managing differing types of cities, and how to preserve the state. Also discussed are the judicial responsibilities of both the general and the ruler. Although the authorship is debated, it is believed to have been written from the perspective of a military general named Wei Liao during the late Warring States period (c. 400 BCE).
The Three Strategies of Huang Shigong (黄石公三略) is a military text which focuses on personnel concerns and logistics: concepts of government, the administration of forces; the characteristics of a capable general; and implementing a system of rewards and punishments. Although called The Three Strategies of Huang Shigong, there is no agreement on the historical author. It has been variously attributed to Huang Shigong and Jiāng Zǐyá, author of the Six Secret Teachings. Other scholars believe it may be a complete forgery. It is believed to have been written during the Han Dynasty (c. 210 CE).
The Thirty Six Stratagems (三十六计) is a text used to illustrate a series of stratagems used in conflict, politics and war, often through improvised or deceptive means. The stratagems are divided into six groups: stratagems of advantage, opportunity, attack, confusion, deception and disadvantage. Each individual stratagem is presented with examples from Chinese history. The stratagems were originally taken from a much larger collection in the Book of Qi, written during the Southern Qi Dynasty (c. 452–498 CE).
Questions and Replies: Tang Taizong and Li Jing (唐太宗李卫公问对) is an ongoing set of dialogues between Tang Dynasty Emperor Taizong and Li Jing, a prominent Tang general. In analyzing military strategy, centuries after the Warring States period, Tang Taizong and Li Jing discuss previous military works such as Cao Cao’s Xin Shu, Wu Qi’s Book of Wuzi, Sun Tzu’s The Art of War, Sima Rangju’s Methods of War and Jiāng Zǐyá’s The Six Secret Teachings. Although no clear authorship has been established, the text is believed to have been written in the late Tang Dynasty (c. 599-649 CE).
Notes on the Texts
Where possible, the most widely-known spelling variant of proper names is used, rather than rigidly adhering to Wade-Giles or Pinyin transcription standards. Alternate variations are presented for reference. This is done for ease of reference and efficient electronic text searches.
Zi (Tzu in Wade-Giles) was used as a suffix for the family name of a respectable man in ancient Chinese culture. It is a rough equivalent to “Sir” and is commonly translated into English as “Master”. In the case of Sun Wu, “Sun” is the family name. Sun Wu is also “Sun Tzu”, “Sun Zi” and “Sunzi”. Similar variations occur with Wu Qi (Wuzi) and Wei Liao (Wei Liaozi).
Sima Rangju, Sima Fa, Tian Chang and the “Ssu-ma” all refer to the same individual, in the context of this compilation. This text on military strategy has historically been referred to as Methods of Sima, or Principles of the Sima, although occasionally it is referred to as the shortened: “Methods” or “Principles”. The title, “Da Sima” is translated as “Minister of War.” In this translation, the title is rendered as “Methods of War”.
In ancient military texts of China, Direct and Indirect actions are often discussed. These strategies are also occasionally referred to as “Orthodox” and “Unorthodox” in earlier translations of Chinese texts.
For the presentation of numbers, numeric values of less than 100 are spelled using words, such as “six” and “thirty six”, while numeric values greater than 100 are presented in numeric format, such as “120” or “10,000”.
For dates, the original texts use the BC/AD calendar era method of date notation. The introductory information, footnotes, references and supplemental material use the BCE/CE methods of notation.
Chen Song, March 2013
Timeline of Chinese Dynasties
Historic Maps
Shang Dynasty
1600 BCE – 1100 BCE
Zhou Dynasty
1100 BCE– 221 BCE
Han Dynasty
206 BCE – 220 CE
Period of Division
220 CE – 589 CE
Table of Contents
Introduction
I. Jiang Ziya – Six Secret Teachings, 六韬
1. Civil Teaching
2. Military Teaching
3. The Dragon Teaching
4. The Tiger Teaching
5. The Leopard Teaching
6. The Hound Teaching
II. Sun Tzu – The Art of War, 孙子兵法
1. Assessment and Planning
2. Waging War
3. Attack Strategies
4. Positioning the Army
5. Forces
6. Weaknesses and Strengths
7. Military Maneuvers
8. Variation and Adaptation
9. Troop Deployment and Movement
10. Terrain
11. The Nine Battlegrounds
12. Attacking with Fire
13. Intelligence and Espionage
III. Sima Rangju – Methods of War, 司马法
1. Benevolence as Foundation
2. Duty of the Son of Heaven
3. Determining Ranks
4. Formational Discipline
5. Employing Masses
IV. Wu Qi – The Book of Wuzi, 吴子
1. Part 1
a. Importance of Seeking Talent
b. Knowing the Enemy
c. Managing Troops
2. Part 2
a. Selection of Generals
b. Responding to Changes in War
c. Motivating the Talented
V. The Book of Wei Liaozi, 尉缭子
Chapters 1 – 8
Chapters 9 – 17
Chapters 18 – 24
VI. The Three Strategies of Huang Shigong, 黄石公三略
The Upper Strategy
The Middle Strategy
The Lower Strategy
VII. The Thirty Six Stratagems, 三十六計
1. Stratagems of Advantage
2. Stratagems of Opportunity
3. Stratagems of Attack
4. Stratagems of Confusion
5. Stratagems of Deception
6. Stratagems of Disadvantage
VIII. Questions & Replies: Tang Taizong & Li Jing, 唐太宗李卫公问对
1. Part 1
2. Part 2
3. Part 3
IX. Bibliography
Copyright Information
Military Strategy Classics
of
Ancient China
English & Chinese
The Art of War, Methods of War
36 Stratagems & Selected Teachings
Six Secret Teachings
Jiang Ziya
六韬
The Six Secret Teachings (六韬) is a well-known and somewhat revolutionary text on civil and military strategy traditionally attributed to the legendary figure Jiāng Zǐyá (also known as Tai Gong Wang), presented in the format of a dialogue between King Wen (Zhou Chang) and Jiāng Zǐyá. This text is the earliest of the collected works in this edition, and the use of divination and astrology differs significantly from this work and later works. The text is believed to have been originally written in the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1100 BCE) with sections added as late as the Warring States period.
Chapter 1 - Civil Teaching