Military Strategy Classics of Ancient China

by Shawn Conners

  春秋初期，楚国日益强盛，楚将子玉率师攻晋。楚国还胁迫陈、蔡、郑、许四个小国出兵，配合楚军作战。此时晋文公刚攻下依附楚国的曹国，明知晋楚之战迟早不可避免。

  子玉率部浩浩荡荡向曹国进发，晋文公闻讯，分析了形势。他对这次战争的胜败没有把握，楚强晋弱，其势汹汹，他决定暂时后退，避其锋芒。对外假意说道：”当年我被迫逃亡，楚国先君对我以礼相待。我曾与他有约定，将来如我返回晋国，愿意两国修好。如果迫不得已，两国交兵，我定先退避三舍。现在，子玉伐我，我当实行诺言，先退三舍。（古时一舍为三十里。）”

  他撤退九十里，已到晋国边界城濮，仗着临黄河，靠太行山，足以御敌。他已事先派人往秦国和齐国求助。

  子玉率部追到城濮，晋文公早已严阵以待。晋文公已探知楚国左、中、右三军，以右军最薄弱，右军前头为陈、蔡士兵，他们本是被胁迫而来，并无斗志。子玉命令左右军先进，中军继之。楚右军直扑晋军，晋军忽然又撤退，陈、蔡军的将官以为晋军惧怕，又要逃跑，就紧追不舍。忽然晋军中杀出一支军队，驾车的马都蒙上老虎皮。陈、蔡军的战马以为是真虎，吓得乱蹦乱跳，转头就跑，骑兵哪里控制得住。楚右军大败。晋文公派士兵假扮陈、蔡军士，向子玉报捷：”右师已胜，元帅赶快进兵。”子玉登车一望，晋军后方烟尘蔽天，他大笑道：”晋军不堪一击。”其实，这是晋军诱敌之计，他们在马后绑上树枝，来往奔跑，故意弄得烟尘蔽日，制造假象。子玉急命左军并力前进。晋军上军故意打着帅旗，往后撤退。楚左军又陷于晋国伏击圈，又遭歼灭。等子玉率中军赶到，晋军三军合力，已把子玉团团围住。子玉这才发现，右军、左军都已被歼，自己已陷重围，急令突围。虽然他在猛将成大心的护卫下，逃得性命，但部队丧亡惨重，只得悻悻回国。

  这个故事中晋文公的几次撤退，都不是消极逃跑，而是主动退却，寻找或制造战机。所以，”走”，是上策。

  Questions & Replies: Tang Taizong & Li Jing

  唐太宗李卫公问对

  Questions and Replies: Tang Taizong and Li Jing (唐太宗李卫公问对) is an ongoing set of dialogues between Tang Dynasty Emperor Taizong and Li Jing, a prominent Tang general. In analyzing military strategy, centuries after the Warring States period, Tang Taizong and Li Jing discuss previous military works such as Cao Cao’s Xin Shu, Wu Qi’s Book of Wuzi, Sun Tzu’s The Art of War, Sima Rangju’s Methods of War and Jiāng Zǐyá’s The Six Secret Teachings. Although no clear authorship has been established, the text is believed to have been written in the late Tang Dynasty (c. 599-649 CE).

  Part 1

  Question 1

  Tang Taizong asked: “Gao Li has encroached upon Xian Luo[18] several times. I dispatched an emissary commanding an end to this, but my edict has been defied. I am considering sending forth a putitive expedition. What are your thoughts?”

  Li Jing replied: “According to what we have been able to find out, Gai Su Wen relies upon his own knowledge in military affairs. He thinks that China lacks the capability to mount a punitive expedition, thus he defies your edict. I request an army of 30,000 men to capture him.”

  Tang Taizong said: “Your troops will be few, while the place is distant. What type of strategy will you employ?”

  Li Jing said: “I will use indirect troops.”

  Tang Taizong said: “When you pacified the Tu Jue, you employed direct troops. Now you speak about indirect troops. Why is that?”

  Li Jing said: “When Zhuge Liang captured Meng Huo seven times, it was not through any other means. He employed indirect troops; that’s all.”

  Tang Taizong said: “When Ma Long of the Jin Dynasty conducted a punitive campaign against Liang Zhou, it was also in accord with the ‘Diagram of Eight Formations’ and he built narrow chariots. When the terrain was broad, he deployed ‘deer-horn chariot’ encampments, and when the road was constricted he built large wooden boxes and placed one each upon individual chariots, so they could both fight and advance. I believe it was indirect troops which the ancients valued!”

  Li Jing said: “When I conducted the punitive campaign against the Tu Jues, we travelled west for several thousand miles. If they had not been indirect troops, how could we have gone so far? Narrow chariots and ‘deer-horn chariot’ encampments are essentials to the deployment of troops. They allow controlling the expenditure of energy, provide a defense to the fore, and constrain the regiments and squads. These three advantages, when gained interchangeably, can improve the prowess of the troops. This is what Ma Long learned so thoroughly from the ancients.”

  太宗问：高丽几次侵略新罗，我派使臣前去谕令息兵，可是高丽不从，我想出兵讨伐，你以为怎样？

  李靖答：据调查了解盖苏文自以为精通军事，认为中国没有能力讨伐他，所以敢于违抗命令，请给我三万兵把他擒来。

  太宗问：兵力这样少，距离那样远，用什么方法对付他呢？

  李靖答：使用正兵。

  太宗问，你平定突厥的时候是用奇兵制胜的，现在征高丽却说使用正兵，是什么道理？

  李靖答：诸葛亮七擒孟获，不是用的别的方法：只是运用正兵器了。

  太宗说：晋将马隆讨平凉州的[树机能]时，也是依照孔明的八阵图用偏箱车布阵。在开阔的地形上，就用偏箱车结成鹿角车营；在狭窄的道路上，就架设木屋于偏箱车上，这样，一面战斗，一面进，[因而取得了胜利。]毫无疑义，正兵的运用是古人所重视的。

  李靖说：我讨伐突厌时，西行数千里，如果不是用正兵，怎能从事这样的远征呢，使用偏箱车、鹿角车营作战，是用兵的要则。既能保持战力，又能抗拒敌人，还能约束队伍，这三种长处结合使用，便可发挥它的威力了。

  Question 2

  Tang Taizong said: “At the battle in which I destroyed Sung Lao Sheng, when the fronts clashed, our righteous army retreated somewhat. I then personally led our elite cavalry to race down the Southern Plain, cutting across in a sudden attack on them from the flank. After Lao Sheng’s troops were cut off from the rear, we severely crushed them and subsequently captured him alive. Were these indirect troops, or direct troops?”

  Li Jing replied: “Your majesty is a natural military genius, not one who only learns by studying. I have examined the ‘Art of War’ as practiced from the Yellow Emperor on down. First be indirect, and afterwards, direct; first be benevolent and righteous, and afterward employ strategy and craftiness. Moreover, in the battle at the Huo Yi, the army was mobilized out of righteousness, so it was indirect. When Qian Cheng fell off his horse and the Right Army withdrew somewhat, it was direct.”

  Tang Taizong commented: “At that time, our slight withdrawal almost led to the failure of our great affair, so how can you refer to it as direct?”

  Li Jing replied: “In general, when troops advance to the front, it is indirect. When they deliberately retreat to the rear, it is direct. Moreover, if the Right Army had not withdrawn somewhat, how could you have gotten Lao Sheng to move forward? The ‘Art of War’ states: “Entice the enemy with baits he cannot resist. Keep him on the move and ambush him.” Lao Sheng did not know how to employ his troops. He relied on courage and made a hasty advance. He did not anticipate his rear being severed or being captured by your Majesty. This is what is referred to as ‘using the direct as the indirect.’

  “As for Huo Qu Bing’s tactics unintentionally agreeing with those of Sun Tzu and Wu Qi, was it really so? When our Right Army withdrew, Gao Zu turned pale. But then I attacked vigorously and, on the contrary, it became advantageous for us. This coincidentally agreed with Sun Tzu and Wu Qi. My Lord certainly shows his knowledge.”

  大宗问：我在霍邑击破宋老生的战斗中，刚刚交锋，我军稍�
��后退，敌人乘机进击，这时我亲率精锐骑兵，由南原急驰而下，予以侧击，切断了老生军队的后路，使其大败，因而活捉了宋老生。这是正兵呢，还是奇兵呢？

  李靖答：陛下的英明神武是天赋的，不是一般人所能学得来的。按兵法所说，自黄帝以来，〔用兵的方略〕都是首先运用正兵，而后讲求出奇制胜；首先讲求仁义，而后运用权谋诡诈。霍邑之战，我军因仗义而兴师，这是正兵；因建成坠马，右军稍向后退，这是奇兵。

  太宗问：当时右军稍向后退，几乎坏了大事，怎么说是奇兵呢？

  李靖答：大凡作战，用正规的战法，向前攻击便是”正兵”，有计划地退却使敌陷于不利便是”奇兵”，如果右军不后退，怎能诱致老生全力进攻呢！兵法上说：”以小利去引诱敌人，乘其混乱然后攻取它。”老生不知兵法，恃勇急进，不料被陛下断绝后路，为陛下所擒。这就是所谓变奇兵为正兵了。

  太宗说：从前霍去病用兵作战，能与孙吴兵法不谋而合，这确有其事吗？当右军稍向后退，高祖大惊失色，我从侧后乘机公击，反而造成我军的胜利，这与孙吴兵法也是不谋而合的，你说的话实在有见识。

  Question 3

  Tang Taizong said: “Whenever an army withdraws, can it be termed as direct?”

  Li Jing said: “It is not so. Whenever the soldiers retreat with their flags confused and disordered, the sounds of the large and small drums not responding to each other and their orders shouted in a clamor, this is true defeat, not direct strategy. If the flags are in order, the drums respond to each other and the commands and orders seem unified, then even though they may be retreating and running, it is not a defeat and must be a case of direct strategy. The ‘Art of War’ says: ‘Do not pursue an enemy who pretends to retreat in desperation.’ It also says: ‘When you are capable, feign incapability.’ These all refer to the direct.”

  Tang Taizong said: “At the battle of Huo Yi, when the Right Army withdrew somewhat, was this a question of Heaven’s effort? When Lao Sheng was captured, was this due to the effort of man?”

  Li Jing said: “If the indirect troops had not changed to direct and the direct to indirect, how would you have gained the victory? Thus for one who excels at employing the army, direct and indirect lie with man, that is all! He changes them from one form to the other so often that it becomes difficult to discern them, which is the reason they are attributed to Heaven.”

  Tang Taizong nodded his head.

  太宗问：凡是军队退却，都能说是奇兵么？

  李靖答：不是的。军队退却的时候，如果旗帜参差而不整齐，鼓音大小而不应和，号令喧嚣而不统一，这是真正败退而不是奇兵，如果旗帜整齐，鼓声应和，号令统一，人马纷纭，[似乱非乱，]虽然退走，但不是真正败退，其中必定有奇。兵法上说：”不要追击假装撤退的敌人。”又说：”能而假装不能。”这些都是用奇的说法。

  太宗问：霍邑之战，右军稍向后退，这是天意吗？老生被擒，这是人力所为吗？

  李靖答：若不是[陛下]将正兵变为奇兵，奇兵变为正兵，怎能取得胜利呢！所以善于用兵的，或奇或正，在于人的运用罢了。由于奇正变化达到神妙莫测的地步，所以人们常常把它归之于天意。

  太宗表示赞成。

  Question 4

  Tang Taizong said: “Are the indirect and direct distinguished beforehand or are they determined at the time of battle?”

  Li Jing said: “According to Duke Cao’s Xin Shu, ‘If you outnumber the enemy two to one, then divide your troops into two, with one section being indirect and the other being direct. If you outnumber the enemy five to one, then three sections should be indirect and two sections should be direct.’[19] This states the general point. As Sun Tzu said: ‘In war, there are only the direct and indirect forces. However the combinations and changes between the two are infinite. Their interactions and combinations are like two never-ending, interlocking rings where possibilities of its beginning and endings cannot be determined.’ This captures it. So how can the distinction be made beforehand?

  “If the officers and troops are not yet trained in my methods, if the assistant generals are not yet familiar with my orders, then we must break the training into two sections. When teaching battle tactics, in each case the soldiers must recognize the flags and drums, dividing and combining in turn.

  These are the techniques for teaching warfare. When the instructions and the evaluation of their implementation have been completed, and the masses know my methods, only then can they be raced about like a flock of sheep, following wherever the general points. Who then makes a distinction of direct and indirect? What Sun Tzu refers to as ‘Thus, if I can uncover the dispositions of the enemy while remaining concealed myself’ is the pinnacle in employing the direct and indirect. Therefore, such a distinction beforehand is merely for the purpose of instruction. Determining the changes at the moment of the battle, the changes are inexhaustible.”

  Tang Taizong said: “Profound indeed! Duke Cao must have known it. But what the Xin Shu teaches is only what he conveyed to his generals, not the fundamental method of the direct and the indirect.”

  太宗问：奇兵与正兵是平时就先行区分的，还是临时根据情况而决定的呢？

  李靖答：按《曹公新书》上说：”[在兵力对比上]我为二敌为一时，我就分兵为二， 以一部分为正兵，一部分为奇兵；我为五敌为一时，我就以五分之三为正兵，五分之二为奇兵。”这仅是大概的说法。只有孙武说过：”作战不过”奇”和”正”，可是”奇”“正”相互的变化，就像圆环旋转那样，无始无终，能穷尽吗？”这才算真正懂得了运用奇、正的道理，哪有平时就加以区分的呢！如果士卒没有学会战法，部将没有熟习号令，就必须区分为奇、正二部分来教练他们。教战时，使各队识别指挥的旗帜和鼓音，按指挥反复进行分合变化的 演习。所以说奇正区分和分合变化，只是一种教战的方法。训练完成，士卒都熟习了战法，然后就能象驱赶群羊一样，任由将帅指挥他们，谁还能认清奇正的分别呢！孙武所说的”若知敌人兵形而我方兵形不被敌方所知”，正是奇正运用到了最高的境界。所以平时区分[奇正]是为了进行训练，而临阵对敌时的奇正变化则是没有穷尽的。

  太宗说：[奇正的运用，]真是深奥啊！深奥啊！[以上的道理]曹公是一定知道的。但《新书》的说法只是教给诸将一般的法则罢了，不是专门论述奇正的原则的。

  Question 5

  Tang Taizong said: “Duke Cao states, ‘direct troops attack from the flank.’ My Lord, what do you have to say about this?”

  Li Jing replied: “I recall that, in commenting on Sun Tzu, Duke Cao said: ‘Going out first to engage in battle is indirect; going out afterward is direct.’ This is different from his discussion of flank attacks. I humbly refer to the engagement as indirect, and those which the general himself sends forth to capture opportunity as direct. Where is the restriction of first, or later, or flank attack?”

  Tang Taizong said: “If I cause the enemy to perceive my indirect as direct, and cause him to perceive my direct as indirect, then is this the meaning of, ‘displaying a form’? Is employing the direct as indirect, the indirect as direct, unfathomable changes and transformation, what is meant by Sun Tzu as ‘being formless’?”

  Li Jing bowed and said: “Your Majesty is indeed wise. Your understanding has passed those of the ancients, and beyond what I can attain.”

  太宗问：曹公说：奇兵就是从侧面打击敌人。你认为怎样？

  李靖答：曹公注释《孙子兵法》时还说：”先向敌人交战的是正兵，以后出敌不意的是奇兵。”这和[奇兵就是]从侧面打击敌人的说法不同。我认为两军正面交锋是正兵，临时捕捉战机出奇制胜的是奇兵。那有
拘泥于先后、侧击的说法呢。

  太宗说：我的正兵，使敌人误认为是奇兵，我的奇兵，使敌人误认为是正兵，这就是孙子所说的”形人”吧！善于变奇兵为正兵，变正兵为奇兵，这样变化莫测，这就是孙子所说的”无形”吧!

  李靖再拜说：陛下圣明，您的说法实在远远超出了古人，不是我所能及的。

  Question 6

  Tang Taizong said: “If ‘dividing and combining are changes,’ wherein lies the direct and indirect?”

  Li Jing said: “For those who excel at employing troops, there are none that are not indirect, none that are not direct, thus they cause the enemy never to be able to discern them. Thus with the indirect, they are victorious, with the direct, they are also victorious. The officers of the army only know they achieve victory; none knows how it is attained. Without being able to fully comprehend the changes, how could the outstanding generals attain this? As for where the dividing and combining come from to create the indirect and direct, only Sun Tzu was capable of comprehending it. From Wu Qi on, no one has been able to attain it.”

  Tang Taizong said: “What was Wu Qi’s strategy like?”

  Li Jing said: “Permit me to speak about the general points. The Marquess Wu of Wei asked Wu Qi about the strategy to be employed when two armies confront each other. Wu Qi said: ‘Gather some lower ranks men who are courageous and have them lead some light shock troops to test him. When the enemy responds to the attack, they, the shock troops, should pretend to run off. When they flee, do not punish them, but observe whether the enemy advances to take the bait. If they sit as one and arise as one, and do not pursue your fleeing troops, the enemy has good strategists. If all their troops pursue the fleeing forces, some advancing, some halting, in disordered fashion, the enemy is not talented. Attack them without hesitation.’ I think that Wu Qi’s strategy is generally of this sort, not what Sun Tzu would refer to as ‘In battle, use the direct forces to match the enemy, and use the indirect forces to win the enemy.’