Jerusalem

by Simon Sebag Montefiore

  Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad 200–10. Jesus meets Moses and Elijah: Mark 9.1–5. Muhammad, mystery of early Islam; doubts of some scholars of entire history before 800, question of conquest, early caliphs: Wickham 279–89. Armstrong, Muhammad 94; qibla 107; relations with Jews 102, 111, 161–3.

  Muhammad in Syria: Kennedy, Conquests 77. Early Islam: Chase F. Robinson, Abd al-Malik 13. Herrin 86–8. Muhammad’s rise: Kennedy, Conquests 45–7; no one more destitute than us, among us who would bury our daughters, God sent us a well-known man, the best among us, Arabian tribes before Muhammad, letters of Muslim soldiers vs. Persians, 47. Letters of Muslim soldiers on Persian conquest: al-Tabari, Tarikh 1.2269–77, 2411–24; 2442–4; 2457–63. These sources describe the Arab invaders of Persia just after the Palestinian conquest. Sophronius: Peters, Jerusalem 175. Relations with the Arabian Jewish tribes, first qibla etc., Israiliyat: Isaac Hassan, “Muslim Literature in Praise of Jerusalem,” in Cathedra 1.170–2. Importance of advice of Jewish converts: Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History (henceforth Ibn Khaldun) 260.

  2. Abu Bakr to Othman. The first successors to Prophet, sources: Donner, Muhammad 91–5; Prophet and Apocalypse 78–82 and 97; knowledge of Syria 96; jihad 83–6; ecumenical openness to Jews and Christians—quotations from Donner 87–9; caliph title used only (possibly) by Abu Bakr but more usually Commander of the Believers and succession 97–106; the nature of Islamic expansion, churches not destroyed 106–19; early version of shahada (without “Muhammad is his prophet/apostle”) 112; Bishop Sebeos and Jewish governor 114; ecumenical 114–15; on sharing churches 114–5; on Cathisma Church with mihrab and in Jerusalem itself 115; Abu Bakr conquests 118–33.

  Apocalypse/The Hour: Koran 33.63, 47.18. Hour nigh: Koran 54.1. Early armies at Yarmuk and al-Qadisiyah, only 30,000 men, power of religious propaganda and motivation: Ibn Khaldun 126. Development of title khalifa: Ibn Khaldun 180. Omar takes title Commander of the Faithful: Kennedy, Conquests 54–6 and 72–5. Barnaby Rogerson, The Heirs of the Prophet Muhammad and the Roots of the Sunni–Shia Schism (henceforth Rogerson) 83, 128–9, 169.

  Omar takes Palestine, Byzantine empire, weaknesses, plague, poverty: Kennedy, Conquests, 142–98; settlement of Palestine and Iraq 95–7; Amr al-As 46–51 and 70–3; Khalid bin Walid 70–3. Yaqubi, History 2.160–70, and al-Baladhuri, Conquest of the Countries, quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 176–7. Defeat of Byzantines: Runciman 1.15 Khalid in command at Damascus and Yarmuk: Kennedy, Conquests 75–89. Early administration: Rogerson 220.

  3. Omar enters Jerusalem: Koran 17.1, change of qibla: Koran 2.142–4. Concept of Day of Judgement: Koran 3.185 33.63, 47.18. 54.1.

  Covenant—Tabari, Annals 1.2405, in Peters, Jerusalem 18. Muthir al-Ghiram in Guy Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems 139–44. Eutychius quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 189–90.

  Grabar, Shape of the Holy 45–50. Omar looks, character, stories: Ibn Khaldun 162. Kennedy, Conquests 125–30. Rogerson 171–82.

  Donner, Muhammad: Omar conquest of Jerusalem, 125; Jews 114–15; Apocalypse 78–82 and 97; militancy 83–6; openness to Monotheists—quotations from Donner 87–9. Shlomo D. Goitein, “Jerusalem in the Arab Period 638–1099, in Cathedra 2: 168–75.

  Omar takes surrender: Kennedy, Conquests 91–5. Abdul Azis Duri, “Jerusalem in the Early Islamic Period,” in Asali, 105; early hadith and fadail: in Asali, 114–16. Jerusalem further place of prayer: Koran 17.1. On importance of Holy Land, Jerusalem and Aqsa: Mustafa Abu Sway, “The Holy Land, Jerusalem and the Aqsa Mosque in Islamic Sources,” in Sacred Esplanade 335–43. Wickham 279–89.

  Jewish hopes, move to Jerusalem: J. Mann, The Jews in Egypt and Palestine under the Fatimid Caliphs (henceforth Mann) 1.44–7. Jewish traditions—Israiliyat and Kaab quotations: Hassan, “Muslim Literature in Praise of Jerusalem,” in Cathedra 1.170–2. Meir Kister, “A Comment on the Antiquity of Traditions Praising Jerusalem,” in Cathedra 1.185–6.

  The names of the city: Angelika Neuwirth, “Jerusalem in Islam: The Three Honorific Names of the City,” in OJ 77–93. Seventeen Muslim names/seventy Jewish in Midrash/multiplicity is greatness, quoted in Goitein, “Jerusalem”187. Grabar, Shape of the Holy 112. Omar on Temple Mount: Isaac ben Joseph quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 191–2; on Jews cleansing Temple Mount and banning: Salman ben Yeruham quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 191–4. Filth on Temple Mount deliberately placed by Helena—Mujir al-Din, Histoire de Jérusalem et d’Hébron (henceforth Mujir) 56–7, and on Jews cleansing Temple Mount. Earliest mosques: Kennedy, Conquests 121 and 134.

  First cemetery and early burials of Companions of Prophet: Kamal Asali, “Cemeteries of Old Jerusalem,” in OJ 279–84. Sophronius, abomination: in Peters, Jerusalem 190. First sight of Jerusalem from hill: Sari Nusseibeh, Once Upon a Country 29. Hussein bin Talal, King Hussein of Jordan, My War with Israel 122. Arculf in Thomas Wright, Early Travels in Palestine 1–5. Jews in Omar’s armies—see Professor Rood in JQ 32, Autumn 2007. Jewish aspirations: Sebeos quoted in Goldhill, City of Longing 76. Mann 1.44–7. Shared church and mosques: Ross Burns, Damascus: A History 100–5. Donner, Muhammad: see earlier references.

  Early names of Jerusalem: see Sacred Esplanade 13. Palestine/Syria holy land: Koran 5.21. Jewish worship on Temple Mount: Miriam Frenkel, “Temple Mount in Jewish Thought,” in Sacred Esplanade 346–8.

  The Arabs and armies—elite, tactics, armies, motivation, poverty including camel hair mixed with blood: Ibn Khaldun 162–3; 126. Kennedy, Conquests 40–2, 57–65; style of soldiers and female booty 111–13. Al-Tabari, Tarikh 1.2269–77, 2411–24, 2442–4, 2457–63. These sources describe the Arab invaders of Persia just after the Palestinian conquest. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 105–9.

  4. Muawiya: this portrait is based on R. Stephen Humphreys, Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan: From Arabia to Empire 1–10 and 119–34; family 38–42; rise 43–53. Donner, Muhammad: Muawiya admired by Jews and Christians 141–3; Apocalypse 143–4; first civil war 145–70; reign of Muawiya 171–7; openness 87–9. Jews plan new Temple: Sebeos quoted in Guy Stroumsa, “Christian Memories and Visions of Jerusalem in Jewish and Islamic Context,” in Sacred Esplanade 321–33 especially 329–30. Building on Temple Mount, Persian or early Islamic: Tsafrir, “70–638 CE: The Templeless Mountain,” Sacred Esplanade 99. Jewish worship on Temple Mount ended by Caliph Omar ibn Abd al-Malik 717–20: Frenkel, “Temple Mount in Jewish Thought,” Sacred Esplanade 346–8. Ibn Khaldun: on bayah 166–7; change from theocratic to royal authority 160–8; Christian administration 192; Muawiya—develops the mihrab after attempted assassination 222; introduces sealing of letters 219; introduces throne due to fatness 216. Caesar of the Arabs: Rogerson 326. Mosque: Arculf, St. Adamnan, Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land 1.1–23.

  Lover of Israel (Muawiya) hews Temple Mount, built mosque—Simon ben Yahati quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 199–200; possibility of Muawiya making Jerusalem the capital of Arab empire/adapting Herodian platform from square to rectangular and lowering Antonia Fortress 201. Jewish Arabian food: S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society 1.72. Apocalyptic Midrash and al-Mutahar ibn Tahir attribute building of prayer place on Temple Mount to Muawiya: Goitein, “Jerusalem” 76. Grabar, Shape of the Holy 50.

  Administration by Christians: Mansur ibn Sargun: Burns, Damascus 100–15. Administering Palestine: Rogerson 189–92, including quotation “I apply not my sword …” Goitein, “Jerusalem” 174.

  Othman: Rogerson 233–87. Muawiya’s palaces: Humphreys, Muawiya 10–12; politics of lineage 26–37.

  Muawiya on Judgement Day/on Syria/sanctifying land/land of ingathering and Judgement: Hassan, “Muslim Literature in Praise of Jerusalem,” in Cathedra 1.170. On Judgement Day: Neuwirth, “Jerusalem in Islam: The Three Honorific Names of the City,” OJ 77–93. War Against Byzantines: Herrin 91–2. Dome of the Chain: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 130. Bayah allegiance—Tabari quoted in Grabar, Shape of the Holy 111–2. Walks through Christian sites: Humphreys, Muawiya 128–9. Umayyads and Jerusalem: Asali, Jerusalem 108–10. Patron and sheikh: Chase F. Robinson
, Abd al-Malik 65. Yazid and succession: Humphreys, Muawiya 96–102. Yazid: Ibn Khaldun 164.

  5. Abd al-Malik and Dome. This portrait of the caliph and imagery and significance of the Dome is based on Andreas Kaplony, “The Mosque of Jerusalem,” in Sacred Esplanade 101–31; Grabar, Shape of the Holy; and Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock; Donner, Muhammad; and Chase F. Robinson, Abd al-Malik. Islamic traditions: al-Tabari, Tarikh 1.2405, and Muthir al-Ghiram quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 187–9.

  Donner, Muhammad: civil war 177–89; community of believers into organized Islam 194–9; Last Judgement and Dome of Rock 199–203; Believers into Islam and caliphate, emphasis on caliph/Koran/double shahada/hadith/God’s deputy 203–12; development of Islamic rituals 214; development of Islamic origins, history 216–18. Political mission and religious aims: Wickham 289–95. Abd al-Malik looks: Robinson, Abd al-Malik 52–61; on concubines 20; on flattery 85; rise 25–43; Umayyad residences 47–8. On royal authority: Ibn Khaldun 198–9. Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems 114–20 and 144–51.

  Description and aesthetics of the Dome: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 52–116. On services based on Jewish Temple, quote on Temple rebuilt, Koran as Torah: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 108–112, including Umayyad ritual from al-Wasiti, Fadail Bayt al-Muqaddas 112. Building the Dome. Robinson, Abd al-Malik 4–9 and 98–100; character 76–94; milestones around Ilya 113–12. On aim to overshadow Church of Sepulchre see al-Muqaddasi, A Description of Syria Including Palestine (henceforth Muqaddasi) 22–3.

  Caliph Omar ibn Abd al-Malik 717–20: Frenkel, Sacred Esplanade 346–8. Jews dream of rebuilding Temple and granted acccess—Salman ben Yeruham quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 193, and Isaac ben Joseph at 191–2. Jewish attendants of Dome: Mujir 55–7. Jews and Temple: Sebeos quoted in Stroumsa, Sacred Esplanade 321–33 especially 329–30. Traces of building, seventh century, Persian or early Islamic: Tsafrir, Sacred Esplanade 99. Mosque: Arculf, St. Adamnan, Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land 1.1–23.

  Eating a banana; Goitein, “Jerusalem” 190 quoting Ibn Asakir’s fadail. Caliph Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik in Jerusalem/bayah/plan to make it imperial capital/Jewish attendants in Dome: Mujir 56–8. The Dome: Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 109–11. Peters, Jerusalem 197. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 174. Jewish attendants, other buildings: Goitein, “Jerusalem” 175–80. Byzantine influences on Dome: Herrin 90. Shanks 9–31.

  On importance of Holy Land, Jerusalem and Aqsa: Mustafa Abu Sway, Sacred Esplanade 335–43.

  6. Umayyad Jerusalem. Al-Aqsa—Grabar, Shape of the Holy 117–22; Aphrodito papyri 12; Umayyad caliphs in Jerusalem, Sulayman and Umar 111; palaces to south of Temple Mount 107–10; the Haram Double and Triple Gates/Gate of Prophet and possibly Golden Gate 122–8 and 152–8; four major domes 158; sceptical that the new Umayyad public buildings south of Temple Mount are necessarily palaces 128–30; Haram 122–8; Dome of the Chain 130–2; city life, Christians and Jews in city 132–5. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 178. Kroyanker 32. Umayyad residences Robinson, Abd al-Malik 47–8. Herrin 90. Shanks 9–31. Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine 69–74 and 104. Mann, 1.44–5. Day of Judgement: Koran 3.185. Byzantine wooden beams in Rockefeller Museum. On apocalyptic geography and site of Divine–human communication: Neuwirth, OJ 77–93. This account of Islamic End of Days is substantially based on Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 108–31, especially 124.

  Decline of Umayyads and rise of Abbasids: Goitein, “Jerusalem” 178–81. Dynasties have a natural span like individuals: Ibn Khaldun 136. On associations of Apocalypse and Divine Judgement with Jewish traditions of creation and Apocalypse: Grabar, Shape of the Holy 133. Jewish worship on Temple Mount 717–20: Frenkel, Sacred Esplanade 346–8.

  On Jewish living areas, on Umayyad palaces: Bahat, Atlas 82–6. Jews banned from Haram and praying at walls, gates: Isaac ben Joseph quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 191, and Solomon ben Yeruham at 193. Mujir 56–7. On Christian pilgrims and festivals and Sepulchre: Arculf, St. Adamnan, Pilgrimage of Arculfus in the Holy Land 1.1–23. Williband and Arculf, quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 202–12. Umayyad palaces: Archeological Park 26–7, including old stones and lavatory. Walid I and the desert qasrs, Umayyad singing stars: The Umayyads: The Rise of Islamic Art 110–25. Walid II/Hisham—Palace of Khirbet al-Mafjar near Jericho—paintings at Rockefeller Museum. Decline of Umayyads and rise of Abbasids: Goitein, “Jerusalem” 180–1. Abassid denunciation of Umayyads: Humphreys quoting Tabari. Abbasid revolution: Wickham 295–7.

  7. Al-Mansur. Take surname titles to separate themselves: Ibn Khaldun 181; Abbasid black banners and change to green 215. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 180–1. Kennedy, Conquests 11–50, including the dead Alids 16; Baghdad 133; court life 139; House of Wisdom/translation of Greek texts 252–60. House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31. Jonathan Lyons, House of Wisdom 62–70 and 89–90. Al-Mansur and al-Mahdi visits to Jerusalem: Peters, Jerusalem 215–17. Abbasid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Al-Mansur and meanness of restorations: Mujir 59. Mahdi visit: Muqaddasi 41–2. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 112–13. Decline in Jerusalem/quote of Thaur ibn Yazid: Neuwirth, OJ 77–93.

  8. Haroun al-Rashid and Charlemagne. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 181–2. Kennedy, The Court of the Caliphs: The Rise and Fall of Islam’s Greatest Dynasty 51–84. Peters, Jerusalem 217–23, including Benedict Chronicle and Memorandum on the Houses of God and Monasteries in the Holy City, listing staff and taxes; and Bernard, Itinerary. Hywel Williams, Emperor of the West: Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire, 230–3. William of Tyre, Deeds Done Beyond the Sea (henceforth William of Tyre) 1.64–5. Gift to Charlemagne: Lyons, House of Wisdom 45. On legend see: Anon., Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne à Jérusalem et à Constantinople. Charlemagne as David: Wickham 381.

  9. Maamun. Climax of Arab culture—marriage of al-Maamun and Buran: Ibn Khaldun 139. Maamun: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 252–260; House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31; Lyons, House of Wisdom 62–70 and 89–90. Inscription of Maamun on al-Aqsa: Nasir-i-Khusrau, Diary of a Journey Through Syria and Palestine. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 182. Abbasid Haram: Kaplony, Sacred Esplanade 101–31. Abbasid culture: Kennedy, Conquests 84–129; Tahirids and Abd Allah ibn Tahir liberates Jerusalem 91 and 203; sumptuous marriage 168; singing girls 173; Maamun in Syria and Egypt 208–9 and death 211–12. Maamun and House of Wisdom, 6,000 books: Wickham 324–31. Translation of Greek texts: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 252–60.

  10. Destruction of dynasty prestige and rise of Persian/Turk ghulam: Ibn Khaldun 124; title of sultan, Abbasids lose power 155 and 193; decay of Abbasids 165–6. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 182–3. Al-Mutasim, peasant revolts 840s, Turkish ghulam: Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 213–17; dhimmi forced to wear yellow clothing by Caliph al-Mutawwakil in 850 240. Peasant revolt 841: Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 113; Goitein, “Jerusalem” 182. Khazar debate: see K. A. Brook, The Jews of Khazaria; A. Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe; S. Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People; on the latest findings on Jewish genetics: “Studies Show Jews’ Genetic Similiarity,” New York Times 9 June 2010.

  11. Ibn Tulun and Tulunids: Thierry Bianquis, “Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tulun to Kafur 868–969,” in Carl F. Petry (ed.), Cambridge History of Egypt, vol. 1: Islamic Egypt 640–1517 (henceforth CHE 1) 86–108; the Carmatian rebellion 106–8; special role of Jerusalem 103. Karaites: Norman Stillman, “The Non-Muslim Communities: The Jewish Community,” in CHE 1.200. Rise of Karaites: Mann 1.60–5.

  The Turkish amir Amjur and son Ali ruled Palestine for the Abbasids from 869 and were praised by Patriarch Theodosius for tolerance: Goitein, “Jerusalem” 183. Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs 84–111. Khazars: Brook, The Jews of Khazaria 96–8; Mann, 1.64. Gideon Avni: conversations with author, Khazar synagogue in Jewish Quarter quoted in Geniza. Khazars respect Jerusalem Academy: Mann 1.64–5.

  12. Ikhshids and Kafur: Bianquis, CHE 1.109–19. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 183–4. Byzantine advance on Jerusalem: John Tzimiskes text in Peters, Jerusalem 243.

  13. Ibn Killis: Bianquis, CHE 1.117. Stillman, CHE 1.206. Goi
tein, “Jerusalem” 184.

  14. Fatimids/Jawhar/Killis as vizier, Fatimids: Paul E. Walker, “The Ismaili Dawa and the Fatimid Caliphate,” in CHE 1.120–48. Paula A. Sanders, “The Fatimid State,” in CHE 1.151–4. Bianquis, CHE 1.117. Messianic Fatimids: Wickham 336–8. Jewish potentates: Stillman, CHE 1.206–7. Goitein, “Jerusalem” 184. On Killis, Jewish Governor of Palestine-Syria, Christian viziers: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.33–4.

  15. Paltiel/Jews and Christians in Jerusalem under the Fatimids. On Paltiel and places of prayer in Jerusalem: Ahima’as, The Chronicle of Ahima’as 64–6, 95–7. Moses Maimonides, Code of Maimonides Book 8 Temple Service 12, 17 and 28–30. On Paltiel and family: Mann, 1.252. Fatimids pay Jewish subsidy: Peters, Jerusalem 276—proved by al-Hakim’s cancellation. Grabar, Shape of the Holy: Jews in Jerusalem/Paltiel’s funeral attacked in 1011: 144–50, 162–8. Mourners of Zion/call for aliyah by Daniel al Kumisi: Peters, Jerusalem 227–9; Karaites 229–32. Moshe Gil, “Aliyah and Pilgrimage in Early Arab Period,” in Cathedra 3.162–73. Jewish Academy: Peters, Jerusalem 232–3; poverty and begging letters 233–4; place of worship—Mount of Olives—Geniza says above Absalom’s monuments 603. Pilgrimage—aura of distinction and Jewish/Christian emulation of Muslims: Goitein, Mediterranean Society 1.55 Stillman, CHE 1.201–9. Christian pilgrimages from Egypt: Ibn al-Qalanisi, Continuation of the Chronicle of Damascus (henceforth Qalanisi) 65–7. Duri in Asali, Jerusalem 118–19.