Jerusalem

by Simon Sebag Montefiore

  9. William of Tyre: life and link with Usamah’s library: Introduction, William of Tyre 1.4–37. Usamah’s books 44. Baldwin IV, leprosy: William of Tyre 2.397–8. Leper 26–32.

  10. Moses Maimonides: this account is based on Joel L. Kraemer, Maimonides: The Life and World of One of Civilisation’s Greatest Minds; refusal to serve Crusader king probably between 1165 and 1171, 161; Jerusalem visit 134–41; Fatimid doctor 160–1; doctor of Qadi al-Fadil and then Saladin 188–92; al-Qadi al-Fadil 197–201; Saladin’s doctors 212 and 215; fame and court life—doctor of al-Afdal 446; Taki al-Din/sex life 446–8. Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 142. Did Maimonides pray in the Dome of the Rock?: Kedar and Pringle believe he did—Sacred Esplanade 133–49. Benjamin of Tudela on Jewish dyers, David’s Tomb and Alroy: see Wright, Early Travellers 83–6, 107–9. Michael Brenner, Short History of the Jews (henceforth Brenner), on Alroy 80; on Maimonides 90–92.

  11. Books/Usamah, William of Tyre 1.4–37. Usamah 44. Baldwin IV, leprosy: William of Tyre 2.397–8. Leper 26–32.

  12. Baldwin IV. Death of Nur al-Din—al-Athir, in Gabrieli 68–70. William of Tyre, death of kings, 2.394–6; succession and symptoms 2.398–9. Along with William of Tyre, this is based on Leper 32–197; on leprosy see article by Dr. Piers D. Mitchell in Leper 245–58. Heraclius and mistress, child: Continuation 43–5. Tyerman 216. Heraclius debauchery unfairly exaggerated—for a more positive view see B. Z. Kedar in Kedar, Mayer and Smail (eds.), Outremer 177–204. W. L. Warren, King John: Heraclius’ tour and Prince John, 32–3. Burial of Baldwin V and sarcophagus: Boas, Jerusalem 180. Tyerman 210–13 and 358–65. Runciman 2.400–30. Reynard of Chatillon: Leper 104–5. Reynald raids Mecca caravan and takes Saladin’s sister: Continuation 29.

  13. Guy and Sibylla: road to Hattin, crowning and spy in Sepulchre: Continuation 25–9; Reynauld, torture of Mecca caravan: Continuation 25–6. Ibn Shaddad, The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin (henceforth Shaddad) 37. For sympathetic analysis of Guy: R. C. Smail, “The Predicaments of Guy of Lusignan,” in Kedar, Mayer and Smail (eds.), Outremer 159–76. Tyerman 356–65. Runciman 2.437–50. Coronation: Kedar, Outremer 190–9. M. C. Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson, Saladin: Politics of Holy War (henceforth Saladin) 246–8. Massacre of Templars and political unity: Continuation 32–5. Hattin/killing of Reynald: Continuation 37–9, 45–8. Cresson and invasion: Shaddad 60–3. For Raymond’s role see M. W. Baldwin, Raymond III of Tripoli and the Fall of Jerusalem.

  14. Saladin and Hattin: Shaddad 37–8. Continuation, 36–9 and 45–8. Battle, Reynald: Shaddad 73–5. Al-Athir: Gabrieli 119–25; Imad al-Din (army, battlefield, killing of Reynald, True Cross, killing Templars): Gabrieli 125. B. Z. Kedar (ed.), The Horns of Hattin 190–207. N. Housley, “Saladin’s Triumph over the Crusader States: The Battle of Hattin, 1187,” History Today 37 (1987). Promise to kill Reynald: Saladin 246–8; the battle 252–65. Runciman 2.453–60. Tyerman 350–72. Saladin splits infantry from knights: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 124–6.

  15. Saladin takes Jerusalem: Shaddad 77–8; Shaddad joins service of Saladin 80; visits to Jerusalem for festivals 89. Continuation 55–67. Al-Athir quoted in Gabrieli 139–46; Imad al-Din 146–63 (women). Saladin 271–7; campaign after Jerusalem 279–94. Runciman 2.461–8. Fall of the city: Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, “1187–1260: The Furthest Mosque (al-Masjid al-Aqsa) under Ayyubid Rule,” in Sacred Esplanade 151–75.

  16. Saladin, character, career, family, court: this is based on the primary sources Ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din; on Lyons and Jackson, Saladin; and R. Stephen Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193–1260. Shaddad: early life 18; beliefs and character 18; modesty, old man, crises with Taki al-Din, justice 23–4; lack of interest in money 25; illness 27, 29; jihad 28–9; crucifixion of Islamic heretic 20; visits to Jerusalem 28; sadness over Taki 32; court life, asceticism 33; fill of worldly pleasures 224; mud on clothes 34; geniality like Prophet holding hands until released 35; Frankish baby 36; rise to power 41–53; favourite son 63; special advice to Zahir on ruling 235; crises and conflict with amirs and grandees 66; swap of Zahir and Safadin 70.

  Youth in Damascus polo, Saladin 1–29; debauchery satire of Taki 118–20; challenges of Taki and sons 244–6; distribution of new conquests 279–94; war 364–74. Saladin’s style of ruling: Humphreys, Ayyubids 15–39. Saladin’s mistakes: al-Athir quoted in Gabrieli 180. As court physician to Saladin and Taki al-Din, sex life: Kraemer, Maimonides, doctor of Qadi al-Fadil and then Saladin 188–92; 197–201; Saladin’s 212 and 215; doctor of al-Afdal 446; Taki al-Din 446–8.

  17. Saladin and Islamic Jerusalem. Ibn Shaddad in charge of Jerusalem, Salahiyya Shafii madrassa, appoints governors: Saladin 236–7. Imad al-Din: Gabrieli 164–75, including Taki al-Din and princes cleaning the Haram, opening up of Rock, robe for preacher, Citadel of David restored with mosques; convent for Sufis in patriarch house, Shafii madrassa in St. Anne’s; Adil encamped in Church of Zion. Turkish military tactics: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 111–14; Saladin’s multinational army 228; Saladin’s image 229–32. Ayyubid architecture on the Haram: Burgoyne, “1187–1260: The Furthest Mosque (al-Masjid al-Aqsa) under Ayyubid Rule,” Sacred Esplanade 151–75. Saladin and Afdal’s buildings and changes: Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 169–72 and Donald P. Little, “Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks,” in Asali, Jerusalem 177–83. Saladin’s madrassa, khanqah, Muristan/Afdal’s Mosque of Omar: Bahat, Atlas 104–7. Qubbat al-Miraj—Dome of Ascension, either Crusader baptistery or built with Crusader spolia; Bab al-Silsila built with Crusader spolia: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 47–8.

  Armenian Jerusalem: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 1–5; Muazzam pays for Armenian building 43.

  Jewish return, Harizi: Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 134 and 230. Saladin invitation and return: Yehuda al-Harizi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 363–4. Prawer, Latin Kingdom 233–47.

  On the Nusseibehs: see Mujir al-Din who saw Saladin’s signature on appointment to Sepulchre/Khanqah Salahiyya. Hazem Zaki Nusseibeh, The Jerusalemites: A Living Memory 395–9.

  18. Richard and Third Crusade: unless otherwise stated, this portrait of Richard I is based on John Gillingham, Richard I. Crisis on second march to Jerusalem: Shaddad 20–122; sadness over Taki death 32; fury over amirs’ refusal to fight at Jaffa 34. Continuation 92–121. Runciman 3.47–74.

  Acre: Shaddad 96–8; arrival of Richard 146–50; fall and killing of prisoners 162–5; infant child 147; killing of Frank prisoners 169; negotiations with Adil and Richard 173–5; Arsuf 174–80; inspection of Jerusalem 181; Adil and Richard letters 185; marriage 187–8, 193; best course is jihad 195; marriage to Richard’s niece 196; winter in Jerusalem 197; advance on Jerusalem/attack on Egyptian caravan 205–7; crisis at Jerusalem; love of city move mountains 210–12; prayers in Jerusalem 217; Jaffa red-haired Richard 223; Saladin no worldly pleasures 224; Jerusalem walls 226; Richard ill 227; Treaty of Jaffa visitors to Jerusalem, Saladin and Adil to Jerusalem 231–4; Saladin’s advice to son Zahir 235; Shaddad in charge of Jerusalem, Salahiyya Shafii madrassa, appoints governors 236–7.

  Acre: al-Athir quoted in Gabrieli 182–92 and 198–200; Imad al-Din 200–7, including women; Richard 213–24; negotiations up to Treaty of Jaffa 235–6. See also Itinerarium Regis Ricardi, quoted in Thomas Archer, Crusade of Richard I. Phillips, Warriors 138–65. Saladin 295–306, 318–30; Saladin and Richard 333–6; Arsuf 336–7; negotiations 343–8; advance on Jerusalem 350–4; Jaffa 356–60; treaty 360–1; to Jerusalem 13 September and Fadil’s anxiety about city 362–3. Long siege of Acre: Housley, Fighting for the Cross 133; Richard’s genius at Arsuf 124–6 and 143; Turkish military tactics 111–14; Saladin and Richard 229–32; sex and women on Crusade 174–7. Frank McLynn, Lionheart and Lackland 169–218.

  19. Saladin’s death: this is based, unless otherwise stated, on Shaddad and Humphreys, Ayyubids. Ayyubid dynasty to Safadin: death, Shaddad 238–245. Rise of Safadin: Humphreys, Ayyubids 87–123; investment of Muazz
am with Damascus in 1198 108; Muazzam moves to Jerusalem in 1204 145; Safadin character and rule, brilliantly successful, the ablest of his line 145–6, 155–6; Muazzam in Jerusalem 11; inscriptions, title of sultan, independent ruler 150–4; Muazzam independent after death of Safadin 155–92; character of Muazzam 185–6, 188–90. War of Saladin’s sons: Runciman 3.79–83. Jerusalem under Afdal, Safadin and Muazzam, architecture, Burgoyne, “1187–1260: The Furthest Mosque (al-Masjid al-Aqsa) under Ayyubid Rule,” Sacred Esplanade 151–75. Inscriptions of Adil in citadel and fountains on Haram and Muazzam’s Ayyubid Tower, madrassas, Haram, walls, khan in Armenian Gardens: Bahat, Atlas 104–7. Adil and Muazzam on al-Aqsa: Kroyanker 44. Qubbat al-Miraj—Dome of Ascension; Bab al-Silsila 1187–99: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 47–8; Muazzam golden age of Ayyubids, restored south-east stairway to Dome 1211, built Nasiriyya Zawiya at Golden Gate 1214, central portal of al-Aqsa 1217, walls restored, built Qubbat al-Nalwiyya 1207 at south-west corner of Haram as a Koran school, Hanafi madrassa 48–9. M. Hawari, “The Citadel (Qal’a) in the Ottoman Period: An Overview,” in Archeological Park 9, 81. On Muazzam character: Mujir 85–7 and 140. Muazzam—seven towers plus mosque at Citadel: Little in Asali, Jerusalem; Muazzam’s Jerusalem 177–180; Ayyubid panic 183–4.

  John of Brienne and Fifth Crusade: Tyerman 636–40. Runciman 3.151–60; al-Athir quoted in Gabrieli 255–6. Panic in Jerusalem: Little in Asali, Jerusalem 183. Jews leave: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 86–90.

  20. Frederick II: character—this is based on David Abulafia, Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor, especially concept of monarchy 137; lance of Christ 127; Jews 143–4; crushing Muslims 145–7; Jews and Muslims 147–53; Lucera 147; marriage 150–4; crusade 171–82; songs, culture 274; Michael Scot magician 261. On Kamil and Muazzam: Humphreys, Ayyubids 193–207. Runciman 3.175–84. Tyerman 726–48, 757.

  21. Frederick in Jerusalem: Ibn Wasil quoted in Gabrieli 269–73 and al-Jauzi 273–6. Abulafia, Frederick II 182–94; gifts to Kamil 267; songs to “flower of Syria” 277. Little in Asali, Jerusalem 184–5. Building in Jerusalem: author discussion with Dan Bahat. Tyerman 752–5. Runciman 3.188–91. Phillips, Warriors 255.

  22. Latin Jerusalem 1229–44. Franks refortify Jerusalem; Nasir Daud takes city; then faced with Thibault of Navarre/Champagne restored to Franks along with part of Galilee; Nasir Daud retakes; then in spring 1244 Jerusalem again returned to Franks, allowed to control Haram: Humphreys, Ayyubids 260–5. New Frankish building, invasion of Nablusites, siege of Nasir Daud: Boas, Jerusalem 20 and 76. Tyerman 753–5, 765. Runciman 3.193 and 210–11. Jews: Prawer, Latin Kingdom 90. Goitein, Palestinian Jewry, 300. B. Z. Kedar, “The Jews in Jerusalem,” in B. Z. Kedar (ed.), Jerusalem in the Middle Ages: Selected Papers 122–37. Hiyari in Asali, Jerusalem 170–1. Templars in Dome of the Rock: Little in Asali, Jerusalem 185. J. Drory, “Jerusalem under Mamluk Rule,” in Cathedra 1.192. Wine in Dome: Ibn Wasil quoted in C. Hillenbrand, Crusaders 317.

  23. Khwarizmian Tartars/Barka Khan: author visit to Khalidi Library, Barka Khan turba in Silsila Street, thanks to Haifa Khalidi. Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 109–216 and 380. Humphreys, Ayyubids 274–6. Tyerman 771. Runciman 3.223–9. On tomb: conversation with Dr. Nasmi Joubeh.

  24. Fall of Ayyubids/assassination of Turanshah and rise of Baibars: character portrait based on Robert Irwin, The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate 1250–1382 (henceforth Irwin). Ibn Wasil quoted in Gabrieli 295–300; Baibars at war, Ibn Az-Zahir quoted in Gabrieli 307–12. Tyerman 797–8. Runciman 3.261–71. Rise of Baibars, ferocious, nervous, sleepless, inspections, character, the rise of the Mamluks, Irwin 1–23; career 37–42. Humphreys, Ayyubids 302–3; Baibars in Palestine Syria 326–35; Nasir gets Jerusalem again, Baibars moves down to Jerusalem and plunders it 257.

  Nachmanides: Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 160–1, 252–3. King Hethum II: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 4–5. Mamluk as Islam’s Templars: Ibn Wasil quoted in Gabrieli 294. Baibars, Aibek and Shajar diamonds, clogs: Phillip, Warriors 258–69. Khalidi Library: author interview with Haifa Khalidi; Jocelyn M. Ajami, “A Hidden Treasure,” in Saudi Aramco World Magazine. Mongol raids into Jerusalem 1259/60: Reuven Amitai, “Mongol Raids into Palestine 1260 and 1300,” in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland no. 2 (1987), 236–55.

  PART SIX: MAMLUK

  1. Baibars in power: Irwin 37–42 and 45–58. Tyerman 727–31, 806–17. Runciman 3.315–27. Mamilla—the Zawiya al-Qalandariyya and Turba al-Kabakayya (tomb of exiled Governor of Safed, al-Kabaki): Asali in OJ 281–2. On Mamluk rise: this account of the Mamluks is based on Linda S. Northrup, “The Bahri Mamluk Sultanate,” in CHE 1.242–89, especially on nature of Mamluk relationships 251; quotation from Ibn Khaldun (grouse/House of War) 242; Baibars military power 259; Mamluk favourite Sufism vs. Taymiyya 267; pressure on Christians and Jews 271–2; Baibars victory over Mongols, Crusaders, Seljuks 273–6. Mamluk culture, on horseback, rules: Stillman, “The Non-Muslim Communities: The Jewish Community,” CHE 1.209, and Jonathan P. Berkey, “Culture and Society During the Middle Ages,” CHE 1.391. Mamluk emblems, Baibars’ lions: Irene A. Bierman, CHE 1.371–2. Baibars at war: Ibn Az-Zahir quoted in Gabrieli 307–12; sarcastic letter on Cyprus campaign 321. Burns, Damascus 198–200. Baibars’ death: Runciman 3.348. Jerusalem/Baibars: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 58–9, 66, 77. Donald P. Little, “1260–1516: The Noble Sanctuary under Mamluk Rule—History,” in Sacred Esplanade 177–87. Michael Hamilton Burgoyne, “The Noble Sanctuary under Mamluk Rule—Architecture,” in Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Baibars builds Khan al-Zahir: Mujir 239. Baibars’ violent, perverted Sufi adviser Sheikh Khadir: Irwin 54. Asali, OJ 281–2. Cathedra 1.198. Edward I Crusade: Tyerman 810–12; Runciman 3.242–3. M. Prestwich, Edward I, 66 and 119.

  2. Qalawun, Ashraf Khalil, Nasir Muhammad: the portrait of Qalawun is based on Linda Northrup, From Slave to Sultan: The Career of al-Mansur Qalawun and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria, and on Irwin. Irwin 63–76. Jerusalem titles: Northrup, From Slave to Sultan 175. Repair of al-Aqsa roof: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 77 and 129. Khalil and Acre: Irwin 76–82. Fall of Acre: Runciman 3.387–99, 403–5, 429.

  3. Ramban and other Jewish visitors: Prawer, History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom 155–61 and 241. Peters, Jerusalem 363 and 531. Minaret: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 513.

  4. Armenians and Mongols 1300: Hintlian, History of the Armenians in the Holy Land 4–5. Reuven Amitai, “Mongol Raids into Palestine,” JRAS 236–55. Niccolo of Poggibonsi quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 410.

  5. Mamluk Jerusalem: this is based on Burgoyne’s Mamluk Jerusalem; Irwin on Mamluk politics; Kroyanker. Nasir visit 1317 and building: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 77–85; Sufis 419–21; Nasir and Tankiz 278–97 and 223–33; Citadel 85; Mamluk style 89; blind Ala al-Din 117; tradition of Mamluk tombs from Nur al-Din 167–8. Mamluk style: Kroyanker 47–58. On building: Drory, Cathedra 1.198–209. Citadel rebuilt: Hawari, OJ 493–518.

  Nasir Muhammad: this portrait is based on Irwin 105–21, including Irwin quote greatest and nastiest. On Nasir and killing of amirs: Ibn Battutah, Travels 18–20; on Jerusalem 26–8. Nasir: Burns, Damascus 201–16. Administration: Little in Asali, Jerusalem 187–9; on Muslim literature of fadail 193–5; on Sufis 191–2. On Nasir waqfs, building, Mujir 102; on parades in Jerusalem 181–2. Irwin: Mamluk executions 86; on religious jurist Ibn Taymiyya 96–7; anti-Christian and anti-Jewish policies 97–9; Mongols 99–104. Mamluk religion, Sunni and Sufism: Northrup, CHE 1.265–9; politics, rise of Nasir and autocracy 251–3. On proximity to Haram: Tankiz inscription “pure neighbour”: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 65. On waqfs: Ibn Khaldun quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 381. Al-Hujr poem on hell and paradise: quoted by Mujir 184. Bedouin attacks: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 59; on Sufis 63. New sanctity of Jerusalem: Book of Arousing Souls by al-Fazari quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 374; Ibn Taymiyya 375–8. King Robert and Franciscans: Clare Mouradian, “Les Chrétiens: Un Enjeu pour les Puissances,” in C. Nicault
(ed.) Jérusalem, 1850–1948: Des Ottomans aux Anglais, entre coexistence spirituelle et déchirure politique 177–204. Franciscans and King Robert of Apulia/Calabria: Felix Fabri, The Book of Wanderings 2.279–82. Ludolph von Suchem in Peters, Jerusalem 422. Little, Sacred Esplanade 177–87. Burgoyne, Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Irwin: brutality 86; Ibn Taymiyya 96–7; anti-minority policies 97–9; Mongol invasion 99–104.

  6. Ibn Khaldun and Tamurlane: Ibn Khaldun 5, 39, 269. Walter J. Fischel, Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane 14–17, 45–8. Jerusalem ulema offer keys: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 59. Local Jerusalems: Anu Mand, “Saints’ Corners in Medieval Livonia,” in Alan V. Murray, Clash of Cultures on the Medieval Baltic Frontier 191–223.

  7. Non-Muslim Jerusalem under late Mamluks: Little, Sacred Esplanade 177–87; Burgoyne, Sacred Esplanade 189–209. Stillman, CHE 1.209. New minarets at Salahiyya Khanqah in 1417: Burgoyne, Mamluk Jerusalem 517; on Jews 64—on tranquillity—Isaac ben Chelo 1374; on trades Elijah of Ferrara. New minarets over Christian and Jewish shrines: Mujir 69, 163, 170; attack on Christians 1452, 254–6. A. David, “Historical Significance of Elders Mentioned in Letters of Rabbi Obadiah of Bertinaro,” and Augusti Arce, “Restrictions upon Freedom of Movement of Jews in Jerusalem,” in Cathedra 2.323–4. Prayers at Golden Gate: Isaac ben Joseph quoted in Peters, Jerusalem 192; population and prayers, Meshullam of Voltera 408; Obadiah, prayers at gates 408; gradual ruin, jackals, attacks during drought, Obadiah’s disciple, seventy families, Jewish study house near Western Wall?, facing Temple on Olives 392, 473, 407–9; Meshuallam and Obadiah, Jewish pilgrims 407–9; Isaac ben Joseph 1334 on French Jews, law studies, Kabbala 474–5. Jewish prayers at Zechariah tomb, cemetery, and visit to the gates, Huldah, Golden Gate: Archaeological Park 36, 98, 107.