Book Read Free

Quantum Computing

Page 8

by Amit Katwala


  2 https://quantum.country/qcvc

  3 https://www.newscientist.com/article/2220968-its-official-google-has-achieved-quantum-supremacy/

  Notes to 1 What is quantum computing? pages 9–29

  1 https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/30/opinion/google-quantum-computer-sycamore.html

  2 https://www.nature.com/articles/nphys2258

  3 https://physicsworld.com/a/researchers-make-single-atom-transistor/#:~:text=Researchers%20in%20Australia%20have%20created,creation%20of%20atomic%2Dscale%20electrodes.

  4 The Quest for the Quantum Computer, p. 19.

  Notes to 2 Building the impossible pages 31–53

  1 Computing with Quantum Cats, p. 217.

  2 https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.4091

  3 p. 255.

  4 p. 235.

  5 https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/02/26/916744/quantum-computer-race-ibm-google/

  Notes to 3 Exponential power pages 55–75

  1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TlQABw_gCF4

  2 https://www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-computers-ibm-cern

  3 https://www.wired.co.uk/article/ibm-barclays-banking-quantum-computing

  Notes to 4 Cracking the code pages 77–96

  1 https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/quantum-hegemony

  2 https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25196/quantum-computing-progress-and-prospects

  3 https://csrc.nist.gov/projects/post-quantum-cryptography/workshops-and-timeline

  4 https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-40294795

  Notes to 5 Simulating nature pages 97–114

  1 https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25196/quantum-computing-progress-and-prospects

  2 https://cen.acs.org/articles/95/i43/Chemistry-quantum-computings-killer-app.html

  3 https://www.wired.com/story/opinion-noisy-quantum-computers-chemistry-problems/

  4 https://www.zapatacomputing.com/variational-what-now/

  5 https://www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-computers-ibm-cern

  Notes to 6 The quantum future pages 115–130

  1 https://www.ft.com/content/b9bb4e54-dbc1-11e9-8f9b-77216ebe1f17

  2 https://www.bcg.com/publications/2018/next-decade-quantum-computing-how-play

  3 https://www.quantamagazine.org/does-nevens-law-describe-quantum-computings-rise-20190618/

  4 https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02935-4

  5 https://www.businessinsider.com/vcs-are-investing-in-quantum-startups-but-expect-a-quantum-winter-2019-3?r=US&IR=T

  Index

  The page references in this index correspond to the print edition from which this ebook was created, and clicking on them will take you to the location in the ebook where the equivalent print page would begin. To find a specific word or phrase from the index, please use the search feature of your ebook reader.

  Aaronson, Scott, 18–19

  ABB, 27

  Adleman, Leonard, 79

  Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), 51

  AES-GCM, 81

  agriculture, 98, 104

  algorithms, 29, 59–60, 95, 126

  artificial intelligence and, 73, 106–7

  credit card numbers and, 67

  encryption and, 78, 80–83, 84

  error correction and, 67

  Grover’s, 62–4, 81–2, 118

  Hamiltonian simulations, 103–7

  optimisation, 71, 112, 117

  P versus NP and, 57

  Shor’s, 59–62, 64, 78, 81, 117

  variational quantum, 109–12, 117–18

  Alibaba, 92

  Alzheimer’s disease, 106

  Amazon, 4, 38, 69

  Apollo program (1961–72), 93

  artificial intelligence, 2, 73, 106–7, 122, 130

  Aspuru-Guzik, Alán, 101, 110

  asymmetric encryption, 79–80

  atomic clocks, 36, 123

  atoms, 14

  Austria, 36, 88, 94

  Azure, 112, 126

  Baidu, 92

  Barclays, 126

  battery technologies, 97, 105, 108–9, 118, 128

  Bell Labs, 58, 59, 62

  Bennett, Charles, 86

  binary code, 10–11, 21, 22

  bits, 10–11, 21, 22

  Bletchley Park, Buckinghamshire, 9, 31

  Boixo, Sergio, 43, 68, 100, 112, 115, 118

  Boston Consulting Group (BCG), 117, 118

  Boulder, Colorado, 28, 32, 37

  Brisse, Matthew, 122

  Bristlecone, 45, 46

  Brown, Julian, 87

  Business Insider, 122

  Caltech, Pasadena, 13, 107, 113–14

  Canada, 46

  cancer, 73, 74

  carbon atoms, 39

  carbon dioxide fixation, 103

  Carminati, Federico, 113–14

  Castagnoli, Giuseppe, 27

  catalysis, 103

  Center for a New American Security (CNAS), 78, 89

  CERN, 113

  Chapman, Peter, 38, 46–7, 126

  chemistry simulations, 98–107

  Chen Yu, 34, 130

  chess, 3

  China, 78, 83–4, 87, 90–95, 121

  Chung, Isaac, 39

  Cirac, Ignacio, 36

  Cirq, 126

  classical computers, 9–10, 20, 24, 28, 37, 118, 124

  algorithm coding, 73

  errors, 66

  generative modelling, 74

  Grover’s algorithm and, 62, 63–4

  Monte Carlo simulations, 72

  optimisation problems, 71

  superconducting qubits and, 42–3, 45

  Shor’s algorithm and, 61

  simulations, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104

  temperature and, 45

  travelling salesman problem, 12

  variational quantum algorithms, 109, 110

  Clay Mathematics Institute, 55

  climate change, 2, 26, 104, 112

  cloud computing, 112, 127–8

  CNOT gates, 36–7

  Computing with Quantum Cats (Gribben), 40, 114

  cooling systems, 5, 21, 34, 45, 49, 120

  Costello, John, 78

  Covid-19 pandemic (2019–21), 107

  credit cards, 67

  cryostats, 5, 34, 45, 49, 120

  cryptography, 2, 26, 28, 58, 59, 64, 77–89, 107, 130

  cybersecurity, 61, 75, 77–95

  D-Wave, 46

  Daimler, 108, 118

  decoherence, 33, 39, 40, 131

  deep fakes, 74

  DeepMind, 107

  Deutsch, David, 22–3, 25, 27

  diamonds, 35

  diffraction grating, 60

  dihydrogen, 102, 110

  Discover, 2

  double slit experiment, 14–19

  Dowling, John, 99, 119

  Dowling–Neven Law, 119

  Ekert, Artur, 28–9, 32, 35, 36, 37, 93, 94, 129

  electric vehicles, 97, 108–9

  electrical resistance, 41

  electrons, 14, 16–18, 26, 37, 98–9

  Elsag Bailey, 27

  encryption, 2, 26, 28, 58, 59, 64, 77–89, 107, 130

  entanglement, 26–7, 88, 92, 131

  errors, 47–8, 65–9, 107

  ETH Zurich, 105

  European Union, 95

  ExxonMobil, 126

  facial recognition, 73

  factoring, 56, 58, 60–61, 68, 78–83

  Falcon, 82

  FeMoco, 104–5

  fertiliser, 98, 104

  Feynman, Richard, 12–13, 20, 31, 101

  financial crash (2008), 72

  Financial Times, 115

  Finland, 33, 120

  fluorine atoms, 39

  Ford, 71

  Frodo, 82

  Fugaku, 1

  Gartner hype cycle, 122

  generative modelling, 74, 106

  Giustina, Marissa, 101, 125, 127

  Global Positioning System (GPS), 123, 125

  Goetz, Jan, 33, 120

  Google, 4, 125
r />   Bristlecone, 45, 46

  Cirq, 126

  dihydrogen simulation, 110

  error rate, 47–8

  hydrogen molecule simulation, 46

  Maps, 69–70, 109

  microwave pulses, use of, 43

  quantum lab, 1, 31–2, 45, 110, 115

  quantum supremacy, 5, 6, 32, 64, 66, 68, 115–16, 119

  superconducting qubits, 42, 43, 44, 52

  Sycamore, 1, 5–6, 24–5, 32, 34, 45, 48, 115–16, 121

  gravitational fields, 124

  Gribbin, John, 40, 42, 114

  Grover, Lov, 62–4, 81–2, 118

  Haber–Bosch process, 98, 104

  Hamilton, William Rowan, 103

  Hamiltonian simulations, 103–7, 109

  Harry Potter series (Rowling), 50

  Harvard University, 107

  Hefei, Anhui, 90, 96, 121

  helium, 98–9

  ‘Hello, World!’ programs, 126

  Hensinger, Winfried, 52

  Higgs boson, 113

  Hurley, William, 4, 11, 51, 123

  hydrogen, 46, 98, 102

  IBM, 4, 42, 44, 46, 47, 125

  lithium research, 108–9, 118

  magnetic alignment, use of, 39

  Monte Carlo simulations, 72

  Q network, 46, 112

  Qiskit, 126

  quantum advantage, 116–17, 132

  quantum supremacy, 6, 116

  quantum volume, 47

  Summit, 1, 5, 6, 9, 11, 55–6

  superconducting qubits, 43, 44, 52

  Imperial College London, 5

  Intel, 4, 20, 51, 99

  interference patterns, 16–19, 25–6, 59–60, 63

  International Conference on Atomic Physics, 28, 32

  Internet, 85, 88

  IonQ, 38, 40, 46, 52, 126

  ions, 35–9, 40, 42, 51, 52, 53, 120, 121, 123–4, 125, 126, 128

  IQM, 33, 120

  Japan, 1

  Johnson, George, 67

  Johnson, Peter, 109

  Josephson junctions, 42–5, 120, 133

  Josephson, Brian, 41

  Kalai, Gil, 65

  Kania, Elsa, 78

  Knight, Peter, 5

  Lancaster University, 47, 90

  Large Hadron Collider, 112–13

  laser beams, 35

  Lewis, Rhys, 123–4

  Lichfield, Gideon, 43

  lithium, 97, 108–9, 118

  Lizard, 82

  logic gates, 28–9, 36–7

  lung cancer, 73, 74

  machine learning, 73, 106–7

  magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 35, 40, 74, 106

  Majorana particle, 50

  mapping, 69–70, 71–2, 109, 123

  Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 13

  Matuschak, Andy, 3

  medicine, 2, 73, 130

  Megrant, Anthony ‘Tony’, 6–7, 22, 25, 33–4, 43, 44, 45, 53

  memory qubits, 89

  Micius, 83–4, 87, 91, 93, 94

  Microsoft, 4, 33, 45, 69, 125

  Azure, 112, 126

  FeMoco research, 105

  miniaturisation, 120

  Q#, 125

  quantum advantage, 116–17, 132

  quantum supremacy, 116

  Seattle traffic project, 71–2

  topological qubits, 49–51, 126, 133–4

  microwaves, 43, 52–3, 133

  Millennium Prize Problems, 55

  MIT Technology Review, 44

  Monte Carlo simulations, 72

  Moore, Gordon, 20, 132

  Moore’s Law, 20–21, 22, 119, 132

  multiverse, 23

  NAND gates, 37

  Narang, Prineha, 107

  National Academies of Sciences (NAS), 81

  National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 93

  National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 37, 82–3

  National Security Agency (NSA), 77–8, 85, 91–2

  natural gas, 98

  Nature, 91, 115, 121

  Nayak, Chetan, 33, 49, 50–51, 125

  Neven, Hartmut, 119

  New Scientist, 5

  New York Times, 18

  Newtonian physics, 14

  Nielsen, Michael, 3

  nitrogen, 98, 104

  nitrogenase, 104

  Nobel Prize, 12, 41

  noise, 32, 33, 40, 66, 107, 120

  noisy intermediate scale quantum (NISQ), 49, 53, 64, 68, 108, 118, 124, 132

  non-linearity, 42

  NOR gates, 37

  nuclear magnetic resonance machines, 39

  Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1

  optimisation problems, 70–71

  Oxford University, 28

  P versus NP problem, 55–8

  Pan Jian-Wei, 88, 91–2, 94, 96

  parity bits, 67

  Patinformatics, 90, 93

  Perelman, Grigori, 55

  photons, 18, 26, 59, 84–9, 102

  photosynthesis, 105, 111

  Photosystem II, 105

  Poincaré conjecture, 55

  Porter, Ben, 71–2

  Preskill, John, 48–9, 65, 122, 132

  prime factors, 56, 58, 60–61, 68, 78–83

  protein folding, 107

  protons, 98–9, 112

  public-key cryptography, 79–83

  Q System One, 46

  Q-Day, 89

  Q#, 125

  QCI, 126

  Qiskit, 126

  quadratic speed-ups, 62, 63–4, 72

  Quanta, 119

  quantum advantage, 116–17, 132

  quantum chemistry simulations, 98–107

  quantum decoherence, 33, 39, 40, 120, 131

  quantum encryption, 59

  quantum entanglement, 26–7, 88, 92, 131

  Quantum Information Center, 18

  quantum interference, 16–19, 25–6, 59–60, 63

  quantum internet, 85, 88

  quantum key distribution, 84–9

  quantum logic gates, 36, 120

  quantum mechanics, 13–19

  quantum repeaters, 86

  quantum satellites, 83–4, 87, 91, 93, 94, 95

  quantum sensors, 124

  quantum superposition, 14, 23, 24, 26, 32, 63, 64, 66, 84

  quantum supremacy, 5, 6, 32, 48, 53, 64, 66, 68, 115–16, 119, 129, 132

  quantum teleportation, 89

  quantum volume, 47

  quantum winter, 122

  qubits, 23–9, 32, 35, 46, 133

  decoherence, 33, 39

  diamonds, 35

  errors, 47–8, 65–9, 107

  superconducting, 42–5, 49–52, 93, 110, 121, 128, 133

  ion traps, 35–9, 40, 42, 51, 52, 93, 120, 121, 125, 126, 128

  lasers, 35

  magnetic alignment, 35, 39–40

  memory, 89

  noise and, 32, 33, 40, 66

  topological, 49–51

  Quest for the Quantum Computer, The (Brown), 87

  resistance, 41

  Riel, Heike, 47, 111, 117, 128

  Rigetti, 125

  Rivest, Ronald, 79

  Rocchetto, Andrea, 58, 61, 62, 83

  RSA encryption, 78–83

  Samsung, 126

  Santa Barbara, California, 1, 31, 45, 110, 115

  Savoie, Christopher, 71, 74, 100, 106

  Schrödinger’s cat, 26

  Schrödinger’s Killer App (Dowling), 99

  Seattle, Washington, 69, 71

  semiconductors, 9

  sensors, 124

  Shamir, Adi, 79

  Shor, Peter, 48, 59–62, 64, 67, 68, 78, 81, 117

  Shortcut Through Time, A (Johnson), 67

  Sierra, 1

  silicon chips, 9

  simulations, 19–20, 98–107

  Snowden, Edward, 77–8, 85, 91–2

  solar panels, 105, 111

  Summit, 1, 5, 6, 9, 11, 55–6, 115–16

  superconductivity, 40–45, 49–52, 93, 105, 110, 121, 128, 133
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  superposition, 14, 23, 24, 26, 32, 63, 64, 66, 84, 133

  Svore, Krysta, 49, 50, 125–6

  switches, 10–11, 21, 22

  Sycamore, 1, 5–6, 24–5, 32, 34, 45, 48, 121

  Tencent, 92

  thermodynamics, 14

  thulium, 99, 103

  topological qubits, 49–51, 126, 133–4

  Toutov, Anton, 107

  transistors, 20–21

  translation, 73

  travelling salesman problem, 11, 70, 111

  Trippe, Anthony ‘Tony’, 93

  Turin, Italy, 28, 36

  Turing, Alan, 9

  United Kingdom, 95, 123

  United States

  Apollo program (1961–72), 93

  Bristlecone, 45, 46

  research funding in, 95

  Sierra, 1

  Snowden disclosures (2013), 77–8, 85, 91–2

  Summit, 1, 5, 6, 9, 11, 55–6, 115–16

  Sycamore, 1, 5–6, 24–5, 32, 34, 45, 48, 115–16, 121

  Universal Quantum, 51–2

  University of Innsbruck, 36

  University of Melbourne, 101

  University of Oxford, 28

  University of Southern California, 114

  University of Sussex, 51

  University of Texas, 18, 58

  variational quantum algorithms, 109–12, 117–18, 134

  Villa Gualino, Turin, 28

  wave functions, 16–18

  weather simulations, 19–20

  WhatsApp, 80

  White, Andrew, 101

  WIRED, 65, 107, 113

  Woerner, Stefan, 72

  Wright brothers, 6

  Y2Q, 89

  Young, Robert, 47, 65, 90, 95–6, 116

  Zapata Computing, 71, 101, 106, 109, 110

  Zoller, Peter, 36

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