Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes; Fourth Edition

by Eamon Duffy

22N. Blakiston, The Roman Question, London 1962, p. 303.

  23C. Butler, The Vatican Council, London 1962, pp. 57–61.

  24Ibid., pp. 101–7; Hales, Pio Nono, pp. 286–7.

  25E. R. Purcell, Life of Manning, London 1896, vol. 2, p. 453.

  26Butler, Vatican Council, p. 355.

  27Denzinger, Enchyridion Symbolorum, p. 508 (no. 1839).

  28Manning, True Story, p. 145.

  29Butler, Vatican Council, p. 50.

  30Manning, Glories of the Sacred Heart, p. 183.

  31H. Parkinson (ed.), The Pope and the People: Select Letters and Addresses on Social Questions by Pope Leo XIII, London 1920, pp. 15–27.

  32L. P. Wallace, Leo XIII and the Rise of Socialism, Durham, North Carolina 1966, p. 92.

  33Parkinson, The Pope and the People, pp. 71–100.

  34Ibid, pp. 101–30.

  35Ibid, pp. 178–219.

  36A. R. Vidler, A Century of Social Catholicism, London 1964, p. 127.

  37J. McManners, Church and State in France 1870–1914, London 1972, p. 74.

  CHAPTER SIX: THE ORACLES OF GOD

  1Quoted in H. Daniel-Rops, A Fight for God 1870–1939, London 1965, p. 51.

  2I. Giordani, Pius X, a Country Priest, Milwaukee 1954, p. 47.

  3R. Bazin, Pius X, London 1928, pp. 162–9.

  4R. Aubert (ed.), The Church in a Secularised Society, London 1978, pp. 129–43.

  5Bazin, Pius X, p. 104.

  6Extracts from Modernist texts, and from Lamentabili and Pascendi in B. Reardon (ed.), Roman Catholic Modernism, London 1968.

  7C. Falconi, Popes in the Twentieth Century, London 1967, p. 54.

  8Quoted in Falconi, Popes in the Twentieth Century, p. 73.

  9J. McManners, Church and State in France 1870–1914, London 1972, pp. 158–65; well-illustrated summary of Pius’ point of view in Bazin, Pius X, pp 192–30; Falconi, Popes in the Twentieth Century, pp. 75 –7.

  10A. Rhodes, The Vatican in the Age of the Dictators, 1922–1945, London 1973, pp.????

  11F. X. Murphy, The Papacy Today, New York 1981, p. 51.

  12P. Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, London 1993, p. 102.

  13J. Derek Holmes, The Papacy in the Modern World, London 1981, p. 80 (from Pius’ first encyclical).

  14A. Rhodes, The Vatican in the Age of the Dictators, London 1973, p. 49.

  15Text in S. Z. Ehler and J. B. Morall (eds.), Church and State throughout the Centuries, London 1954, pp. 457–484.

  16Text in Ehler and Morall, Church and State, pp. 407–56.

  17H. Stehle, Eastern Politics of the Vatican 1917–1979, Athens Ohio 1981, pp. 151,169.

  18Text in Ehler and Morall, Church and State, pp. 519–39.

  19Ibid., pp. 545–78.

  20Despatch quoted in W. O. Chadwick, Britain and the Vatican during the Second World War, Cambridge 1986, p. 28.

  21H. Jedin and J. Dolan, History of the Church, volume 10, London 1981, p. 80.

  22Stehle, Eastern Politics of the Vatican, pp. 193–4.

  23S. Zuccotti, Under His Very Windows, New Haven and London 2000, pp. 150–70.

  24M. Phayer, The Catholic Church and the Holocaust 1930–1965, Bloomington 2000, p. 49.

  25Chadwick, Britain and the Vatican, p. 218.

  26P. Blet, R. A. Graham, A. Martini and B. Schneider (eds.), Actes et Documents du Saint Siège relatifs à la Seconde Guerre Mondiale, 11 volumes, Vatican City 1965–78.

  27P. Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, London 1993, p. 245.

  28Stehle, Eastern Politics of the Vatican, p. 296.

  29Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, p. 284.

  30Hebblethwaite, John XXIII, Pope of the Council, London 1984, pp. 430–3.

  31A. Flannery (ed.), Vatican Council II: the Conciliar and Post-Conciliar Documents, Leominster 1981, pp. 350–432.

  32Flannery, Vatican Council II, pp. 903–1001.

  33Cited in A. Stacpoole (ed.), Vatican II by those who were there, London 1986, pp. 142–3.

  34Flannery, Vatican Council II, pp. 1–56 (Liturgy), pp. 452 –70 (Ecumenism): pp. 738–42 (Other Religions), pp. 799–812 (Religious Liberty).

  35Hebblethwaite, Paul VI, p. 339.

  36Cited in A. Hastings (ed.), Modern Catholicism, London 1991, p. 48.

  37J. M. Miller (ed.), The Encyclicals of John Paul II, Huntington, Indiana 1996, p. 59.

  38Ibid., p. 137.

  39Ibid., pp. 442, 472.

  40Ibid., pp. 914–77.

  41John L. Allen, The Rise of Benedict XVI, New York and London 2005, p. 200.

  42Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, Salt of the Earth: Christianity and the Catholic Church at the end of the Millennium: an interview with Peter Seewald, San Francisco 1996, p. 73.

  43John L. Allen, Cardinal Ratzinger: the Vatican’s Enforcer of the Faith, New York and London 2000, pp. 62, 67–9.

  44Aidan Nichols, The Theology of Joseph Ratzinger, Edinburgh 1988, pp. 100, 151.

  45Salt of the Earth, pp. 73–8.

  46Joseph Ratzinger, Milestones: Memoirs 1927–1977, San Francisco 1998, pp. 128, 140–4.

  47Salt of the Earth, pp. 176–7.

  48Salt of the Earth, p. 105.

  49Adrian Pabst (ed.), The Crisis of Global Capitalism: Pope Benedict’s Social Encyclical and the future of Political Economy, Eugene, Oregon 2011.

  50For intelligent but contrasting perspectives on this debate, Matthew Lamb and Matthew Levering (eds), Vatican II, Renewal within Tradition, Oxford 2008; John O’Malley, What Happened at Vatican II? Cambridge, Mass. 2008.

  51In October 2012 Mgr Scicluna was appointed auxiliary bishop in the Archdiocese of Malta, a ‘promotion’ widely perceived as the kicking upstairs of a man who had made Curial enemies by his efficiency and outspoken condemnation of the ‘deadly culture of silence’ which surrounded clerical sexual abuse. Scicluna himself vigorously denied that his move was a victory for his opponents, declaring that ‘If you want to silence someone, you don’t make him a bishop’.

  52Pastoral letter of Benedict XVI to the Catholics of Ireland, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/letters/2010/documents/hf_ben-xvi_let_20100319_church-ireland_en.html para 4.

  53Peter Seewald, Light of the World: the Pope, the Church, and the Signs of the Times, London 2010.

  54Official Latin text, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2013/february/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20130211_declaratio_lt.html English translation, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2013/february/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20130211_declaratio_en.html

  55Francesca Ambrogetti and Sergio Rubin, Pope Francis: Conversations with Jorge Bergoglio, New York 2013, p. 36.

  56Paul Vallely, Pope Francis, Untying the Knots, London 2013, p. 37.

  57Jorge Mario Bergoglio and Abraham Skorka, On Heaven and Earth, Pope Francis on Faith, Family and the Church in the 21st Century, London 2013, ch. 25

  58Conversations, p. 46.

  59Vallely, Pope Francis, p. 96.

  60Full text of interview available at http://www.americamagazine.org/pope-interview

  61For his own sense of having ‘played Tarzan’, see Conversations pp. 71–2.

  62On Heaven and Earth ch. 9.

  63Conversations, pp. 71–3.

  64Text available at http://en.radiovaticana.va/news/2013/03/27/bergoglios_intervention:_a_diagnosis_of_the_problems_in_the_church/en1–677269

  65Full text available at http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/francesco/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20130629_enciclica-lumen-fidei_en.html

  66Full text available at http://www.catholicherald.co.uk/news/2013/07/27/wyd-2013-full-text-of-papal-address-to-brazilian-bishops/

  67Conversations pp. 85–6.

  68Text of Evangelii Gaudium available at http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/francesco/apost_exhortations/documents/papa-francesco_esortazione-ap_20131

  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY

  This is not an exhaustive bibliography of the papacy. It is intended as a guide to further reading on the main periods and issues discussed in th
e text. The emphasis is on books in English, but some works in other languages have been included where appropriate.

  A. GENERAL SURVEYS AND REFERENCE WORKS.

  The best general history of the papacy to the end of the eighteenth century is unfortunately available only in German: F. X. Seppelt, Geschichte der Päpste, Munich 1954–9; the same applies to J. Schmidlin, Papstgeschichte der neuesten Zeit, Munich 1933–9, which takes the story on from the pontificate of Pius VII. There is a modern one-volume survey, from a respectful Roman-Catholic point of view, with up-to-date bibliographies, edited by Yves-Marie Hilaire, Histoire de la Papauté: 2000 Ans de Mission et de Tribulations, Paris 1996. Horst Fuhrmann’s Die Päpste: von Petrus zu Johannes Paul II, Munich 1998, is a stimulating survey by a distinguished medievalist, though its episodic structure reflects its origins as a series of radio broadcasts. There are now a number of excellent dictionaries: P. Levillain (ed.), The Papacy, An Encyclopedia, New York and London 2002 (3 volumes); J. N. D. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of the Popes, Oxford 1986. Individual biographies are better in Kelly, but Levillain covers a wider range of topics. F. J. Coppa, Encyclopedia of the Vatican and the Papacy, London 1999, is briefer than either, but still useful. The Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiano celebrated the Jubilee Year 2000 with the publication of a major three-volume Enciclopedia dei Papi, Rome 2000. Though some of the entries were originally written for other reference books, and are showing their age, overall for those with the ability to read Italian it is a tremendous resource, especially to be recommended for the bibliographies, the invaluable concluding ‘cronotassi’ of the Popes by Mgr. Charles Burns, and for the handsome and sometimes unusual illustrations.

  For individual popes, in addition to the above, the entries in the following encyclopedias are generally reliable, though of course not every pope is included: The New Catholic Encyclopedia, New York 1967 and supplements; Encyclopedia Cattolica, Vatican City 1949–54. For canonized popes, the entries in the Italian Bibliotheca Sanctorum, Rome 1961, are often outstandingly good. Allen Duston and Roberto Zagnoli (eds.), St Peter and the Vatican, Alexandria, Virginia 2003, is the sumptuously edited catalogue of an exhibition of objects and pictures from the Vatican collections which throws light on many unexpected aspects of the papacy.

  For general reference, E. A. Livingstone (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd edition, Oxford 1997, provides concise articles and excellent bibliographies.

  There are many general histories of the Church: the ten-volume History of the Church, originally published in German and edited by H. Jedin and J. Dolan, London 1965–1981, is sometimes densely written but is packed with information. For English readers a disadvantage is that its bibliographies rely heavily on works in German; note that volumes 1 and 3 appeared under the original German title Handbook of Church History. The French multi-volume history edited by Jean-Marie Mayeur, Charles and Luce Pietri, André Vauchz and Mark Venards, Histoire du Christianisme des Origines à nos Jours, Paris 1990–, is excellent. Briefer, but still very good and more user-friendly is R. Aubert, D. Knowles and L. J. Rogier, The Christian Centuries, London 1969–78, of which only volumes 1, 2 and 5 appeared, covering the Early Church, the Middle Ages, and the mid-nineteenth and twentieth centuries; the bibliographies are now in need of updating.

  Three general works provide useful introductory treatments of the theology of the papacy: T. G. Jalland, The Church and the Papacy, London 1944, (Anglican); J. Tillard, The Bishop of Rome, London 1983, (Roman Catholic); K. Schatz, Papal Primacy from its Origins to the Present, Collegeville Minnesota 1996, (Roman Catholic). For a range of theological and ecclesiological reflections on the papacy after the Second Vatican Council, see Robert Markus and Eric John, Papacy and Hierarchy, London 1969 (two gifted historians call for the repudiation of the legacy of Gregory VII and the papal monarchy); Patrick Granfield, The Limits of the Papacy, London 1987, (cautious exploration by a canonist); H. Urs Von Balthasar, The Office of Peter and the Structure of the Church, San Francisco 1986, (attempt at reconstruction by the most influential theologian of the era of John Paul II).

  B. SPECIFIC PERIODS

  CHAPTER ONE: ‘UPON THIS ROCK’

  General histories of the Early Church provide basic introductions to the history of the papacy in the first four centuries. Despite its age, Louis Duchesene’s masterly three-volume The Early History of the Christian Church, London 1909, remains in many ways the best of these. There is a short and lively survey in H. Chadwick, The Early Church, Harmondsworth 1993. R. B. Eno, The Rise of the Papacy, Wilmington, Delaware 1990, focuses on the texts and theology.

  Most of the ancient texts bearing on the history of the papacy up to the reign of Damasus I are collected and translated into English in J. T. Shotwell and L. R. Loomis (eds.), The See of Peter, New York 1927, reprinted 1991. Supplementary texts up to the time of Leo I will be found in J. Stevenson (ed.), Creeds, Councils and Controversies: Documents Illustrative of the History of the Church A.D. 337–461, London 1966. A fundamental source is Eusebius, The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine, Harmondsworth 1989. The Epistle of Clement and Ignatian epistles can be found in M. Staniforth (ed.) Early Christian Writings, Harmondsworth 1987; they are included along with The Shepherd of Hermas, Greek text and translation, in J. B. Lightfoot (edited by J. R. Harmer), The Apostolic Fathers, London 1898.

  On the background of Christianity and the Empire: Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971, and the early chapters of the same author’s The Rise of Western Christendom, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1996; Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World from the Second Century A.D. to the Conversion of Constantine, Harmondsworth 1988; R. A. Markus, Christianity in the Roman World, London 1974.

  Survey of the treatment of Peter in the New Testament by an ecumenical team of scholars in R. E. Brown, K. P. Donfried and J. Reumann, Peter in the New Testament, London 1974; Oscar Culmann, Peter: Disciple,Apostle, Martyr, London 1962; T. V. Smith, Petrine Controversies in Early Christianity, Tübingen 1985.

  There is a huge literature on Peter’s presence in Rome and the supposed tomb of St. Peter, much of it unreliable. A start can be made with L. Hertling and E. Kirschbaum, The Roman Catacombs and Their Martyrs, Milwaukee 1956; E. Kirschbaum, The Tombs of St Peter and St Paul, London 1959; J. Toynbee and J. W. Perkins, The Shrine of St Peter and the Vatican Excavations, London 1956; D. W. O’Connor, Peter in Rome, New York 1969. For the developing cult of Peter in Rome and the shrine at San Sebastiano, see also H. Chadwick, ‘St. Peter and St. Paul in Rome’ in History and Thought of the Early Church, London 1982, pp. 31– 52.

  The Jewish community in Rome is the subject of H. J. Leon, The Jews of Ancient Rome, Philadelphia 1960.

  Some of the older treatments of the Church in first and secondcentury Rome retain value, notably G. La Piana, ‘The Roman Church at the End of the Second Century’, Harvard Theological Review 18 (1925), pp. 201–77. But all modern discussion of the issues must now start from the exhaustive and persuasive analysis by Peter Lampe, From Paul to Valentinus: Christians at Rome in the First Two Centuries, London 2003. This is a difficult read for the non-specialist, but it conveys as no other work does the extraordinary ferment of early Roman Christianity. On the architectural setting of the early Roman Christian community: R. Krautheimer and S. Curãiç, Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture, New Haven and London 1986; G. Snyder, Ante-Pacem: Archaeological Evidence of Church Life Before Constantine, Macon, Georgia 1985.

  On persecution and the Early Church, in addition to Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, chapter 9, see W. H. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church, Oxford 1965. For Cyprian’s treatise on unity, and his relations with the papacy: Jalland, The Church and the Papacy and Eno, The Rise of the Papacy (both mentioned above) and M. Bévenot (ed.), St Cyprian, the Lapsed, and The Unity of the Church, London 1957.

  The best accounts of Constantine’s religious beliefs: N. H. Baynes, Constantine the Great and the Chris
tian Church, London 1929; A. H. M. Jones, Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, Harmondsworth 1962; R. MacMullen, Constantine, London 1970.

  On Donatism: W. H. Frend, The Donatist Church, London 1952. On Arianism: R. D. Williams, Arius: Heresy and Tradition, Oxford 1987; R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: the Arian Controversy 318–381, Edinburgh 1988. The rationale and strategy behind the Constantinian settlement of Christianity as the religion of the Empire is explored in H. A. Drake, Constantine and the Bishops: the Politics of Intolerance, Baltimore, Maryland 2001.

  Fundamental work on Rome in the Constantinian and post-Constantinian era, and on popes Liberius and Damasus, in C Pietri, Roma Christiana: Recherches sur l’Eglise de Rome … de Miltiade à Sixte III (311–440), Rome 1976, reissued 1994. R. Krautheimer, Profile of a City 312–1308, Princeton, New Jersey 1980, deals with far more than architecture; John Beckwith, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, New Haven and London 1979.

  On Milan and Ambrose: R. Krautheimer, Three Christian Capitals, Berkeley 1983, pp. 69–92; N. B. McLynn, Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital, Berkeley 1994. Papal relations with Africa are explored in J. E. Merdinger, Rome and the African Church in the time of Augustine, New Haven 1997. On Leo the Great: T. G. Jalland, The Life and Times of Leo the Great, London 1941; P. A. McShane, La Romanitas et le Pape Léon le Grand, Paris 1979; W. Ullmann, ‘Leo I and the Theme of Papal Primacy’, Journal of Theological Studies, New Series 11 (1960), pp. 25–51. There is an English translation of Leo’s sermons and letters in C. L. Feltoe, Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, second series 12.

  CHAPTER TWO: ‘BETWEEN TWO EMPIRES’

  Surveys of the period: Peter Llewellyn, Rome in the Dark Ages, London 1993; Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity and The Rise of Western Christendom (above); Judith Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, London 1989; the older study by H. St. L. B. Moss, The Birth of the Middle Ages 395–814, Oxford 1935, remains worth reading. Jeffrey Richards, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752, London 1979, is fundamental, and should be read alongside Walter Ullmann, A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages, London 1974, (over-schematic but packed with ideas). Bernard Schimmelpfennig, The Papacy, New York 1992, is a questioning survey by a distinguished Roman Catholic scholar – but this English translation from the German leaves a good deal to be desired. G. Barraclough, The Medieval Papacy, London 1968, is the best short narrative.