3.
Polybius 3. 86. 1-5, Livy 22. 8. 1.
4.
Livy 22. 7. 6-14, 8. 2-A.
5.
Polybius 3. 87. 6-9, Livy 22. 8. 5-7.
6.
Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 1-4.
7.
Livy 22. 9. 7-10. 10.
8.
Livy 22.11.1-9; on the request to be allowed to ride a horse, Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 4.
9.
Polybius 3. 86. 8-87. 5, Livy 22. 9. 1-5.
10.
Polybius 3. 88. 1-90. 6, Livy 22. 12. 1-12. See P. Erdkamp, 'Polybius, Livy and the Fabian Strategy', Ancient Society 23 (1992), pp. 127-47, which argues convincingly that Livy grossly exaggerated the impact of Fabius' attempts to deprive Hannibal of food. For a discussion of the armies' possible routes during this campaign see Lazenby (1978), pp. 66-71, Connolly (1981), pp. 177-82. Plutarch mentions the military slang, 'kicking in the stomach', in LucullusW. 1.
11.
Polybius 3. 90. 7-92. 10, Livy 22. 13. 1-15. 1.
12.
Polybius 3. 93. 1-94. 6, Livy 22. 15. 2-18.
13.
Fabius' nickname, Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 5; the election of Minucius and his subsequent defeat, Polybius 3. 100. 1-105. 11, Livy 22. 18. 5-10, 23. 1-30. 10.
Chapter 8
1.
W. Heckmann, Rommel's War in Africa (London, 1981), p. 113; A. Beevor, Stalingrad (London, 1998), p. 297.
2.
Polybius 3. 107. 8-15, Livy 22. 35. 1-36. 5. For modern views see J. Lazenby, Hannibal's War (Warminster, 1978), pp. 75-6, and F. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius 1 (Oxford, 1970), pp. 439-40, who support Polybius' figures; B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), pp. 134-41, and P. Brunt, Italian Manpower (Oxford, 1971), p. 419 are amongst those who reject them.
3.
Livy's claims of Varro's radical politics, 22. 25. 18-19, 34. 2-35. 4, 38. 6. See also
R. Feig Vishnia, State, Society and Popular Leaders in Mid Republican Rome 241-167 BC (London, 1995), pp. 57-8.
1.
Paullus' speech, Polybius 3. 108. 1-13; mood of the allies, Polybius 3. 107. 6; Livy's improbable version of a conversation between Fabius Maximus and Paullus, Livy 22. 38. 6-40. 4.
2.
Polybius 3. 107. 1-7.
3.
The Roman approach to Cannae, 3. 110. 1; Livy's version, 22. 40. 5-44. 1. For the battle site see Lazenby (1978), pp. 77-8, P. Connolly, Greece and Rome at War (London, 1981), p. 184, H. Delbriick (trans. W. Renfroe), History of the Art of War. Volume 1: Warfare in Antiquity (Nebraska, 1975), pp. 324-5 , and for a contrasting view see J. Kromayer & G. Veith, Antike Schlachtfelder (Berlin, 1903-31) III. 1,
pp. 278-388, who place the battle south of the river, but a little nearer to the coast.
1.
Polybius 3. 110. 2-11, Livy 22. 44. 1-3.
1.
Near desertion of the Spanish, Livy 22. 40. 7-8, but see P. Erdkamp, 'Polybius, Livy and the Fabian Strategy', Ancient Society 23 (1992), pp. 127-47. For the conversation with Gisgo see Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 15. 2-3.
2.
Polybius 3. 112. 1-5, livy 22. 44. 4-45. 4. As Connolly (1981), p. 184 points out, the spur on which San Ferdinando di Puglia now lies stands out as the most obvious spot for Hannibal's camp.
1.
Livy 22. 45. 5 claims that Varro did not consult Paullus. For the suggestion that Paullus was in fact in command see Connolly (1981), pp. 184-6.
2.
At Metaurus, the consul G. Claudius Nero controlled the right, the praetor L. Porcius Licinus the centre and the other consul M. Livius Drusus Salinator the left, in spite of the fact that the battle was fought under his command, Livy 27. 98.
3.
For the Roman deployment see Polybius 3. 113. 1-5, Livy 45. 5-8.
4.
Aemilius Paullus sent the triarii to protect the baggage and begin construction of a camp and kept the rest of the army to cover them before Pydna, Livy 44. 37, and Merula ordered his triarii to guard the baggage when he encountered the Boii on the march in 193 BC, Livy 35. 4. However, in each case the commander had not planned to fight a battle. Lazenby (1978), p. 79 suggests that the 10,000 men consisted of one legion and its ala.
5.
Hannibal's deployment see Polybius 3. 113. 6-114. 8, Iivy 22. 46. 1-7.
6.
Polybius 3. 115. 1-4, Livy 22. 47. 1-3; Paullus wounded, Livy 49. 1.
7.
Livy 22. 47. 5.
8.
Polybius 3. 115. 5-116. 4, Livy 22. 47. 4-10. For the use of Corps and Division sized columns by Napoleon's army and their inherent problems see J. Elting, Swords Around a Throne (London, 1988), pp. 536-7.
9.
livy claims that 500 Numidians pretended to desert, 22. 48. 2-4, but in Appian's version it is 500 Celtiberians who do so, The Hannibalic War 22.
10.
Polybius 116. 5-8, Livy 22. 48. 1-6.
11.
Polybius 116. 9-117. 12, Livy 22. 49. 1-18. For a discussion of the figures see Lazenby (1978), pp. 84-5. For a vivid attempt at depicting the final stages of the battle see
V. Hanson, 'Cannae', in R. Cowley (ed.) Experience of War (1992). See also P. Sabin, 'The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War', in Cornell, Rankov 8c Sabin (edd.), The Second Punic War (1996), pp. 59-79, esp. 67, which discusses the proportion of casualties usually suffered by each side in the battles of this period.
1.
M. Middlebrook, The First Day of the Somme (1971), pp. 262-4.
2.
Iivy22. 51. 5-9.
3.
Polybius 3. 117.4-5.
4.
Livy 22. 52. 4, 7, 53. 1-54. 6.
5.
Livy 22. 51. 1-4.
1.
Field Marshal Sir Bernard Mongomery, A History of Warfare (London, 1968), p. 97. For the argument against Livy's judgement see Lazenby (1978), pp. 85-6 and 'Was Hannibal Right?', in T. Cornell, B. Rankov, and P. Sabin (edd.) The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, British Institute of Classical Studies Supplement 67 (London, 1996), 39-48. The view is not new; Delbruck (1975), pp. 336-44 came to much the same conclusion.
2.
Livy 22. 58. 1-9.
1.
Revival of exchange system from First Punic War, Livy 22. 23. 6-8, Plutarch, Fabius Maximus 7; for Cincius Alimentus, Livy 21. 38. 3.
2.
Hannibal fighting for honour and power, Livy 22. 58. 3.
3.
Polybius 6. 58. 1-13, Livy 22. 58. 9-61. 10.
4.
Postumius' disaster, Polybius 3. 118. 6, Livy 23. 24. 6-13.
5.
Livy 22. 57. 10-12, 23. 14. 1-4.
6.
N. Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi (Berkeley, 1990), pp. 139-40, Livy 22. 61. 14-5.
7.
Livy 22. 56. 4^5, 57. 2-9, cf. Polybius 6. 56. 6-12.
8.
Livy 26. 11.6.
Chapter 9
1.
For the desire of the poorer classes for change and the general loyalty of the aristocracies to Rome see Livy 23. 14. 7-12, 24. 13. 8, and esp. 24. 2. 8-11; examples of aristocratic leaders forcing a defection, 23. 30. 8, 24. 47. 6, and attempting to do so, 24. 13; aristocratic leaders claiming popular support, 24. 13. 2-3.
2.
Defections, noting the exceptions in each area, Livy 22. 61. 11-13. Roman garrisons in Etruria, livy 23. 5. 4, replaced 26. 28. 4-6; trouble anticipated at Arretium, 27. 21. 6-7, 22. 5.
3.
The Bruttians' disappointment following their attack on Rhegium, Livy 24. 2. 1-11; appeals for protection from Roman raids, Livy 23. 42. 3 by Samnites, and 24. 12. 1-2, 25. 15. 1-3,22. 15-16 by Campanians.
4.
The deputation to Varro, Livy 23. 4. 1-6. 8; rebellion and the treaty with Hannibal, 23. 7. 1-3; Hannibal's occupation and the arrest of Decius Magius, 23. 7. 4-10. 13. Zonaras 9. 2. blames Hannibal for the bath house massacre.
5.
Attempts at Naples, Livy 23. 1. 5-10, 14. 5,15. 1-6; Nola, 23. 15. 7-17. 1.
6.
Livy 23. 17. 7-18. 9,19. 1-20. 3.
7.
Battle of River Calor, Livy 24. 15. 1-16. 5; Beneventum 212, 25. 13. 3-14. 14; Bomilcar, Livy 23. 41. 10-12.
8.
On legionary numbers in general see P. Brunt, Italian Manpower (Oxford, 1971), pp. 416-22. On the legions in 215-214 see J. Lazenby, Hannibal's War (Warminster, 1978), p. 95.
9.
Livy 25. 20. 4.
1.
Elections for 215, Livy 23. 24. 1-3, 31. 7-9,12-14; for 214, 24. 7. 10-9. 3.
1.
Capture of Casilinum, Livy 24. 19. 1-11; Arpi, 24. 45. 1-47. 11; desertions 23,46. 6-7, 24. 47. 8,11; co-operation between the consuls, 23. 39. 5-8, 24. 19. 3-9.
2.
Lucius Bantius, Livy 23. 15. 7-16. 1, Plutarch Marcellus 10, cf. Plutarch Fabius Maximus 20.
3.
Livy 23. 11.7-13. 8.
4.
Livy 24. 13. 1-5, 20. 9-15.
5.
Polybius 8. 24. 125. 11, Livy 25. 7. 10-1(8)8. 10.
6.
Polybius 8. 24. 4-34. 13, Livy 25. 8. 1-11. 20. Livy was uncertain whether to date this episode to 213 or 212, but the latter seems most likely, see Lazenby (1978), p. 110.
7.
For a discussion of damage to crops, see V. Hanson, Warfare and Agriculture in Classical Greece (Berkeley, 1998), pp. 16, 30, 34-5, 50-52, 58-60, 106, 212-13, 219.
1.
Earlier fighting around Tarentum, livy 23. 46. 9-11, 25. 15. 1-3,19. 1-20. 5, 26. 4. 1-10; single combats, 23. 46. 12-17. 8, 25. 18. 4-15.
2.
Livy 26. 1. 2, defection of Campanians, 24. 47. 12-13.
3.
Livy 26. 4. 3-10, see M. Samuels, 'The Reality of Cannae', Militargeschichtliche Mitteilungen 47 (1990), pp. 7-29, esp. 11-15, who argues unconvincingly for a major reform.
4.
Polybius 9. 3. 1-7. 10, Livy 26. 5. 1-6. 13.
5.
Livy 26. 6. 14-17,12. 1-16. 13.
6.
Livy 27. 15. 4-16. 9, Plutarch FabiusMaximus21, including the tradition involving Fabius' former mistress.
7.
Livy 27. 16. 10-16.
8.
Betrayal of Salapia, Livy 26. 38. 11-14; 1st Hcrdonea, Livy 25. 21. 1-10; 2nd Herdonea, 27. 1. 3-15; other battles employing whole legions in reserve, 27. 2. 1-12, 12. 7-17,13. 11-14. 15. A clear example of an army forming in more than one set of triplex acies straight from the line of march came in 193, Livy 35. 4-5. At Emporion in 195 Cato kept an entire legion in reserve, but may have significantly outnumbered the enemy, Livy 34. 15. 3.
9.
Trial of Fulvius, N. Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi (Berkeley, 1990), pp. 106-8,120,146, 188-9 and Livy 26. 2. 7-3. 12; death of Marcellus and Crispinus, Livy 27. 26. 7-27. 14, cf. Plutarch, Marcellus 29-30; attempt on Salapia, Livy 27. 28. 1-13.
10.
Surrender of Lucanians and others, Livy 27. 15. 2-3; for African deserters fighting for the Romans in Spain see 28. 20. 1.
11.
Scandal involving army contractors, Livy 25. 3. 8-4. 11; censors reduce equestrians, 27. 11. 15-16; Latin colonies, 27. 9. 7-10. 10.
12.
Planned expedition in 216, Livy 23. 27. 9-12; actual march in 208, 27. 36. 1-4.
13.
Livy 27. 39. 1-14, 43. 1-3; Iicinus' legions under strength, 27. 39. 2.
14.
Livy 27. 43. 4-46. 5.
15.
Appian, The Hannibalic War 52.
16.
Polybius 11. 1. 1-2. 11, Livy 27. 46. 6-49. 9; for the date of the battle and the tradition that Hasdrubal committed suicide, see Ovid, Fasti 6. 770; location of the battlefield see J. Kromayer and G. Veith, Antike Schlactfelder in Italien undAfrika (Berlin, 1913), III. 1, pp. 424-94; for one view of the improvements in Roman armies see J-P. Brisson, 'Les Mutations de la Seconde Guerre Punique', in J-P. Brisson, Problemes de la Guerre a Rome (Paris, 1969), pp. 33-59.
17.
Thanksgiving, Livy 27. 51. 8; the triumph, 28. 9. 2-20.
18.
Livy 28. 46. 7-13, 29. 4. 6, 30. 18. 1-19. 6.
19.
Hannibal's recall, Livy 30. 19. 12-20. 9.
Chapter 10
1.
On Spain in general see S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (Princeton, 1985), pp. 174-84.
2.
Polybius 3. 76. 1-13, Livy 21. 50. 1-51. 11. Polybius 3. 76. 8-9 claims that Hasdrubal knew of Hanno's defeat before he attacked, but Livy denies this, 21. 51. 1. Livy's account of the fighting after this is normally rejected under the assumption that he has mistaken a different version of the same events for later operations.
1.
Polybius 3. 95. 2-96. 6, Livy 22. 19. 1-20. 3; the later raiding, Livy 22. 20. 4-21. 8.
2.
Polybius 3. 97. 1-99. 9.
1.
Livy 23. 26. 1-29. 17. For comparisons between Ibera and Cannae see J. Lazenby, Hannibal's War (Warminster, 1978) pp. 128-9, and B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), pp. 140, 180.
2.
Lazenby (1978), p. 129.
3.
The Romans later tried to take advantage of this tendency amongst the Celtiberians, Livy 34. 19. 2-8.
4.
Livy 25. 32. 1-39. 18; Marcius' rank see Cicero, pro Balbo 34, Valerius Maximus 2. 7. 15.
5.
For military intelligence in the Republican period see M. Austin & B. Rankov, Exploratio (London, 1995), pp. 18-108.
1.
Polybius 5. 108. 1-110. 11.
1.
The treaty, Polybius 7. 9. 1-17; the negotiations and the capture of the envoys, Livy 23. 33. 1-24. 9.
2.
Livy 23. 38. 8-10, 48. 3,24. 10. 4,40. 1-17.
3.
Supplementum Fpigraphicum Graecum 13. 382, Livy 26. 24. 1-25. 15.
4.
For a discussion of the importance of booty see W. Harris, War and Imperialism in Mid Republican Rome 327-70 BC (Oxford, 1979), pp. 58-104.
5.
For the Aetolians' reluctance to ally with Rome and delay over the treaty's ratification see Lazenby (1978), p. 116.
6.
Echinous, Polybius 9. 41. 1-42. 4. For a narrative account with references to the sources see Lazenby (1978), pp. 161-7. For Hellenistic armies see F. Adcock, The Greek and Macedonian Art of War (Berkeley, 1962) and B. Bar Kochva, The SeleucidArmy (Cambridge, 1976).
7.
Attempted mediation, Livy 27. 30. 4-7; Mantineia, Polybius 11. 11. 1-18. 10; the Aetolians conclude peace with Philip V, Livy 29. 12. 1-4.
8.
Livy 29. 12. 2-16.
9.
Sicily, Livy 21. 49. 1-51. 4; Sardinia, Livy 23. 9-12, 34. 10-17,40. 1-41. 9. For a discussion see S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (Princeton, 1985), pp. 251-4.
10.
Polybius 7. 2. 1-8. 9, Iivy 24. 4. 1-7. 9. Hiero sends aid, Polybius 3. 75. 7-8.
11.
Livy 24. 27. 6-33. 8.
12.
Polybius 8. 3. 1-7. 12, Livy 24. 33. 9-34. 16, Plutarch Marcellus 14-17.
13.
Livy 24. 35. 1-39. 13.
14.
Polybius 8. 37. 1-13, Livy 25. 23. 1-25. 13, Plutarch Marcellus 18.
15.
Livy 25. 26. 1-15, 25. 27. 2-13.
16.
Livy 25. 27. 6-7, 28. 1-31. 11, Plutarch Marcellus 19-20.
17.
Livy 25. 40. 1-41. 7; Marcellus' ovation 26. 21. 1-13, Plutarch Marcellus 21-22.
18.
Punic reinforcements, see Livy 26. 21. 14-17; Laevinus, Livy 26. 40. 1-15. Muttines appears on a later inscription from Delphi as Marcus Valerius Muttines along with his four sons, Inscriptions Graecae 585, and he and one of the sons are mentioned as still serving with the army in 188 BC by Livy 38. 41. 12; Moericus, 26. 21. 10-13.
19.
Livy 26. 40. 15-16
Chap
ter 11
1.
Marcius as propraetor senatui, Livy 26. 2. 1-6; Nero, 26. 17. 1-2, Appian The Wars in Spain. 17; his campaign, Livy 26. 17. 2-16.
2.
Scipio's appointment to the Spanish command, Livy 26. 18. 1-19. 9, and H. Scullard, Scipio Africanus: Soldier and Politician (London, 1970), p. 31; for interpretations based on factional politics see J. Lazenby, Hannibal's War (Warminster, 1978), p. 133 and
B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), pp. 191-2.
1.
Scipio's character, Polybius 10. 2. 1-5. 10, and Scullard (1970), pp. 18-23, 27-32. On the virtues attributed to Scipio and later Roman commanders see S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (Oxford, 1971), passim, esp. pp. 35-6, 113,136, 228, 224.
2.
Scipio's forces, Polybius 10. 6. 7,9. 6, Livy 26. 19. 10; for Punic dispositions contrast Polybius 10. 7. 5.
3.
Seven-day march, Polybius 10. 9. 7; Scipio's speech, Polybius 10. 11. 5-8, Livy 26. 43. 2-8.
4.
Polybius 10. 9. 8-10. 13, 12. 1-11, Iivy 26. 44. 1-4.
5.
Proximity of Punic armies, Polybius 10. 7. 5; Scipio's direction of the assault, Polybius 10. 13. 1-5.
6.
On the difficulty of renewing an assault after a failure see Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 3. 280-88,4. 30-53,62-83, 6. 29-67,131-148.
7.
Polybius 10. 13. 6-15. 7, Iivy 26. 44. 5-46. 10. See also A. Ribera, I Lacomba con M. Calvo Galvez, 'La primera evidencia arqueol6gica de la destruction de Valentia por Pompeyo', Journal of Roman Archaeology 8 (1995), pp. 19-40 for evidence of Roman atrocities, although in this case committed during a civil war.
1.
Polybius 10. 15. 8-17. 16, Iivy 26. 47. 1-49. 10. For discussion of Roman plundering see A. Ziolkowski' Urbs direpta, or how the Romans sacked cities', in J. Rich and M. Shipley, War and Society in the Roman World (London, 1993), pp. 69-91, although not all his conclusions have been generally accepted.
2.
E.g. Lazenby (1978), pp. 136-7, F. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius 2 (Oxford, 1970), pp. 192-6, Scullard (1970), pp. 39-67.
3.
Polybius 10. 18. 1-19. 7, Livy 26. 49. 11-50. 14, cf. Plutarch, Alexander 21.
4.
Polybius 10. 20. 1-8, Livy 26. 51. 3-14.
5.
Polybius 10. 38. 7-10.
6.
Battle and aftermath, Polybius 10. 39. 1^*0. 12, Livy 27. 17. 1-20. 8; the mention of calones fighting, 27. 18. 12.
The Fall of Carthage Page 51
