7.
The defeat of Hanno, Livy 28. 1. 1-2. 12; the campaign in Baetica, 28. 1. 13-4. 4.
8.
Polybius 11. 20. 1-9, Livy 28. 12. 10-13. 5.
9.
Polybius 11. 21. 1-6, Livy 28. 13. 6-10.
10.
Polybius 11. 21. 7-24. 9, Livy 28. 14. 1-15. 11.
11.
For discussion of the location of the battle and Scipio's manoeuvre see Lazenby (1978), pp. 147-9, Walbank 2 (1970), pp. 296-304, and Scullard (1970), pp. 88-92.
12.
Livy 28. 15. 12-16. 13.
13.
Polybius 11. 25. 1-33. 6, Livy 28. 19. 1-29. 12, 31. 5-35. 12. See also S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (Princeton, 1985), pp. 184-7.
14.
Polybius 11. 24. 1-4, Livy 28. 16. 11-12,16. 14-18. 12, 35. 1-13.
Chapter 12
1.
Livy 28. 38. 6-12, 40. 1-45. 10, Plutarch Fabius Maximus 25-26; rumour that Scipio would bring a bill before the People, 28. 45. 1.
2.
Volunteers and contributions from allied communities, Livy 28. 45. 13-46. 1; size of army taken to Africa, 29. 25. 1-4. J. Lazenby, Hannibal's War (Warminster, 1978), p. 203 is reluctant to accept the large size of the legions claimed by Livy, but does not provide convincing arguments to justify his decision.
3.
Laelius' expedition, Livy 29. 1. 14, 2. 7-5. 1; intensive training in Sicily, 29. 1. 2-14, 22. 1-5; criticism of Scipio's delay, Lazenby (1978), pp. 195-6; the supply of Scipio's expedition, see J. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War (Brill, 1999), pp. 161, 226.
4.
Livy 29. 6. 1-9. 12.
5.
Livy 29. 15. 4-21. 13, Plutarch Cato the Elder 3; different versions of the fate of Pleminius, Livy 29. 22. 7-10.
6.
Livy 29. 24. 10-27. 5.
7.
Livy 29. 27. 6-29. 3.
8.
Livy 29. 29. 4-33. 10; Syphax's marriage to Sophonisba, 29. 23. 2-10. For a more detailed summary see Lazenby (1978), pp. 198-9, 202.
9.
Livy 29. 34.1-17; Iivy's belief that there were two distinct actions involving commanders named Hanno, 29. 35. 1-2, cf. Lazenby (1978), pp. 205-6; Roman plundering 29. 35. 3-5; the parentage of the second Hanno see Livy 29. 34. 1, Dio 17. 65.
1.
The siege and arrival of Syphax, Polybius 14. 1. 1-15, Livy 29. 35. 6-15; castra Cornelia, see Caesar, Bellum Civile 2. 24; the Numidian camp, Livy 30. 3. 1-10; centurions disguised as slaves, 30. 4. 1-3.
2.
Polybius 14. 2. 1-6. 5, Livy 30. 4. 4-6. 9.
3.
See Lazenby (1978), pp. 207-8, F. Walbank A Historical Commentary on Polybius 2 (Oxford, 1970), pp. 427-9.
4.
Supplies of clothing, Livy 29. 36. 1-3.
5.
Polybius 14. 6. 6-7. 9, Livy 30. 7. 1-13; for the possible locations of the battlefield see Lazenby (1978), pp. 208-9, Walbank 2, p. 447, H. Scullard, Scipio Africanus: Soldier and Politician (London, 1970), pp. 127-31.
6.
Polybius 14. 8. 1-14, Livy 30. 8. 1-9. 1; the reasons for the Celtiberians' stubbornness, 30. 8. 8; war weariness of Libyan towns, Polybius 14. 9. 4-5.
7.
Polybius 14. 9. 1-5, Livy 30. 9. 2; for a discussion of generals' consilia in a later period see Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 131-3.
8.
Polybius 14. 9. 6-10. 1, Livy 30. 9. 3-9.
9.
Polybius 14. 10. 2-12, Livy 30. 9. 10-1. 21; for a discussion see Lazenby (1978), pp. 209-11.
10.
Livy 30. 11. 1-15. 14.
11.
Livy 30. 16. 3-14.
12.
Livy 30. 17. 1-14, 21. 11-23. 8; Polybius 15. 1. 2-4 states that the treaty was ratified by Rome.
13.
Livy 30. 24. 5-12, Polybius 15. 1. 1.
14.
Polybius 15. 1. 3-2. 15, Livy 30. 25. 1-10.
1.
Brutality of the campaign, Polybius 15. 3. 14; the extension of Scipio's command, Iivy 30. 1. 10-11; Caepio, 30. 24. 1-i; the consuls of 202, 30. 27. 1-5.
2.
Polybius 15. 3. 4-5. 4, 5. 1-8. 14, Livy 30. 29. 1-10, cf. Frontinus, Strategemata 1. 1. 3, 6. 2. 1, 2.
3.
Location of the battlefield see discussions in Lazenby (1978), p. 218, Walbank 2 (1970), pp. 445-51, Scullard (1970), pp. 142-55, 271-4, and J. Kromayer & G. Veith, Antike Schlahtfelder in Italien und Afrika (Berlin, 1912), III. 2 pp. 598-712.
4.
Polybius 15. 9. 1-11. 12, Livy 30. 32. 1-33. 11, Appian, Punic Wars 40-41; the Macedonian 'legion', Livy 30. 26. 3, 33. 5.
5.
Different officers speak to each of the Punic lines, Polybius 15. 11. 4-6, Livy 30. 33. 8-12.
6.
Suggestion that Hannibal ordered his cavalry to flee and draw the Romans into pursuit, Lazenby (1978), p. 223.
7.
Problematic passage in Polybius, 15. 13. 1; quotation of Homer, Iliad 4. 437, Polybius 15. 12. 9; description of Romans banging weapons against shields, 15. 12. 8.
8.
Repeated charges, Livy 30. 34. 2; on the offensive use of shield see Livy 30. 34. 3, cf. Plutarch, Caesar 16, Tacitus, Annals 14. 36-7, Agricola 36; for the size and weight of Republican shields see M. Bishop & J. Coulston, Roman Military Equipment (London, 1993), pp. 58-9, P. Connolly, Greece and Rome at War (London, 1981), p. 131. Lazenby (1978), p. 224, and Walbank 2 (1970), p. 469 claim that the principes were not committed, but Polybius' text is ambiguous and their arguments rely on supposition.
9.
The veterans' refusal to let fugitives into their ranks, Polybius 15. 13. 9-10.
10.
Accounts of the battle, Polybius 15. 12. 1-16. 6, Livy 30. 33. 12-35. 11. Little or no useful detail is included in the heroic narrative of Appian, Punic Wars 40-47, or the brief account in Zonaras 9. 14. Appian gives Roman casualties as 2,500 plus more of Masinissa's men, Punic Wars 48.
11.
Livy 30. 36. 1-11; the consul in 201, 30. 40. 7-41. 1; Scipio's consilium considers the destruction of Carthage, livy 30. 36. 10-11.
12.
Polybius 15. 18. 1-8, Livy 30. 37. 1-6.
13.
Polybius 15. 19. 1-9, Livy 30. 37. 7-38. 5; Appian Punic Wars 54.
Chapter 13
1.
Counting as pitched battles, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannae, Ibera, the River Calor, First and Second Herdonea, Baecula, Metaurus, Ilipa, the defeat of Mago, the Great Plains, and Zama.
2.
On foraging and raiding see J. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War (Brill, 1999), pp. 117-55, 286-92; for a detailed discussion of raiding and crop destruction in Greek warfare see V. D. Hanson, Warfare and agriculture in Classical Greece, rev. ed. (California, 1998).
3.
Role of sieges in propaganda, see J. Keegan, A History of Warfare (London, 1993), pp. 151-2.
4.
For views on Hannibal's strategy see B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), p. 141, J. F. Lazenby Hannibal's War (Warminster, 1978), pp. 85-6 and 'Was Maharbal Right?', in T. Cornell, B. Rankov and P. Sabin (edd.) The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, British Institute of Classical Studies Supplement 67 (London, 1996), pp. 39-48, H. Delbriick Warfare in Antiquity, (trans, by W. J. Renfroe: Lincoln and New York, 1975), pp. 336-44, B. D. Hoyos 'Hannibal: What kind of genius?', Greece and Rome 30 (1983), pp.171-80, esp. pp.177-8, and S. Lancel, Hannibal (Oxford, 1997), pp. 109-11.
1.
See S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (Princeton, 1985), pp. 186-98.
2.
Dyson (1985), pp. 35-86, 87-125.
1.
Livy 31. 1. 6-2. 4, 5. 16. 1. For discussion of other motives for the war, see F. Walbank, 'Polybius and Rome's Eastern Policy', Journal of Roman Studies 53 (1963) 1-13
(= Collected Papers (1988)), P. Derow, 'Polybius, Rome and the East', JRS 69 (1979) 1-15, Harris (1978), pp. 212-18.
1.
>
Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus 19; for Hellenistic armies see also B. Bar Kochva, The Seleucid Army (Cambridge, 1976).
2.
Recruitment of veterans from Scipio's army in 200, Livy 31. 14. 1-2.
1.
Cynoscephalae, Polybius 18. 19. 1-33. 7, Livy 33. 6. 1-10. 10; Magnesia, Livy 38. 37-44, Appian, Syrian Wars, 30-36, Bar Kochva (1976), pp. 163-73; Pydna, Livy 44. 40-42, Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus 18-22.
2.
Polybius 18. 44. 1-45. 12, Livy 33. 30. 1-11; concerns over discipline were reflected in Paullus' careful training of the army in Macedonia, Livy 44. 33-4, 36-40; the slaves, Plutarch, Flamininus 13.
3.
Livy 37. 45.
4.
R. Kallett-Marx, Hegemony to Empire (California, 1995), pp. 11-96.
5.
For an introduction to this period see M. Crawford, The Roman Republic (London, 1978), pp. 49-83.
6.
For Manlius Vulso see Livy 38. 44-50.
7.
H. Scullard, Scipio Africanus: Soldier and Politician (London, 1970), pp. 21044.
8.
For the trial of the Scipiones see Livy 38. 50-56.
9.
For Cato's career in general see A. E. Astin, Cato the Censor (Oxford, 1978); for Sums see Pliny Natural History 8. 5. 11.
10.
For the black stone see Livy 29. 10. 4-11. 8, 29. 14. 5-14. The suppression of the Bacchic rites see Livy 39. 8-19, InscripHones Latinae Selectae 18 = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 1. 2. 581.
11.
Famously when Gaius Popilius Laenas browbeat Antiochus IV into submission, Livy 45. 12. On the growth of latifundia see K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (Cambridge, 1978).
12.
For Hannibal's remaining in charge of the army, Nepos, Hannibal 7. 1-4, his turning the soldiers to agriculture, Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 37. 3, S. Lancel, Carthage (Oxford, 1995), pp. 277,402, 8c (1997), pp. 180-185. His conflicts with other politicians and eventual exile, Livy 33. 45. 6-49. 8.
13.
The wealth of Carthage, Lancel (1995), pp. 401-409; Punic spies, Zonaras 8. 11.
14.
Livy 39. 51.
15.
Livy 35.14.
Chapter 14
1.
For criticism of the Roman behaviour see W. Harris, War and Imperialism in Mid Republican Rome 327-70 BC (Oxford, 1979), pp. 234-40.
2.
Carthaginian politics after 201, Appian, Punic Wars 67-8, and G. Picard 8c C. Picard, Carthage (London, 1987), pp. 272-82; Ariston of Tyre, see Livy 34. 61. 1-6, 62. 6-7; Mago the Bruttian, Polybius 36. 5. 1. For a discussion of the motives for Roman war-making in this period see J. Rich, 'Fear, greed and glory', in Rich 8c Shipley (edd.) War
and Society in the Roman World, pp. 38-68, esp. p. 64.
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 69, Plutarch, Cato the Elder 26-7, Livy Per. 47, and A. Astin, Cato the Elder (Oxford, 1978), pp. 125-30.
2.
For the wars in Spain see S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (Princeton, 1985), pp. 199-218; Scipio Aemilianus in 151, Polybius 35. 4. 1-14; Galba, Appian, Hispania. 60.
3.
For Flamininus see Polybius 18. 11. 1-12. 5.
4.
For Masinissa's character see Polybius 36. 16. 1-12, Appian, Punic Wars 106. See Picard & Picard (1987), p. 272 for a useful comparison with the attitudes in modern times of former colonies to their old masters.
5.
Appian, Punic Wars 67-9; Polybius 31. 21. 1-8 and for a discussion of the dating of this incident and others described by Livy see F. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius 3 (Oxford, 1970), pp. 489-91; see also B. Caven, The Punic Wars (1980),
pp. 263-70, Picard & Picard (1987), pp. 279-90.
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 70-73.
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 74.
1.
Polybius 36. 1. 1-6. 6, Appian, Punic Wars 75. The 'sixteen' captured from Perseus, Livy 45. 35.
2.
Appian, Punic Wars 76-90. Cicero noted Censorinus' tendency towards Platonism, Cicero, Acad. 2. 32. 102.
12 Appian, Punic Wars 91-3.
Chapter 15
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 95-6; for the archaeological evidence see S. Lancel, Carthage (1995), pp. 415-19, and 'L'enceinte periurbaine de Carthage lors de la troisieme guerre punique', Studia Phoenicia, X: Punic Wars, pp. 251-78.
2.
The Roman forces, Appian, Punic Wars 75, cf. P. Brunt, Italian Manpower (Oxford, 1971), p. 428 and Appendix 26, Appian, Punic Wars 93.
3.
Appian, Punic Wars 97.
4.
Appian, Punic Wars 98; it was common practice in the later Roman army to exploit the rivalry between different units and branches of the service, e.g. Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 1. 39-41, Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 5. 502-3, Tacitus Hist. 3. 24, 5. 16, Inscriptions Latinae Selectae 5795.
5.
Scipio's early life and character, Polybius 31. 25. 2-30. 3; actions in 151, Polybius 35. 4. 8-5. 2; in general see A. Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (Oxford, 1967), pp. 12-47.
6.
Appian, Punic Wars 99.
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 100.
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 101-09. For the identification of Nepheris with the area of Djebel Zaghouan, see Lancel (1995), p. 419.
2.
Appian, Punic Wars 110-11.
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 112.
1.
See B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), pp. 282-3, Astin (1967), pp. 48-60 for first year of the war, 61-9 for Scipio's election.
2.
Appian, Punic Wars 113-14.
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 115-18.
2.
Appian, Punic Wars 119-20; unfair distribution of supplies, Polybius 38. 8. 11.
3.
Appian, Punic Wars 121-3, Lancel (1995), pp. 422-4.
4.
E.g. Antonius Primus in AD 69, Tacitus, Histories 3. 17.
5.
Appian, Punic Wars 124-6.
1.
Appian, Punic Wars 127-30; for the archaeology of this area see Lancel (1995), pp. 156-72,425-6.
2.
Appian, Punic Wars 130-1; Polybius' portrayal of Hasdrubal 38. 7. 1-8. 15.
3.
Appian, Punic Wars 132-5; on the survival of some remains from Punic Carthage see Lancel (1995), pp. 428-9.
4.
Appian, Punic Wars 132.
5.
For the later career of Scipio Aemilianus see Astin (1967), pp. 80-241; the capture of Numantia, Appian, The Wars in Spain. 90-91; rumours concerning his death, see Appian, Bellum Civile 1. 19-20, Astin (1967), p. 241.
6.
The Elder Pliny rated Caesar as the greatest Roman commander because he had won more battles than anyone else, Natural History 7. 91-2, cf. Plutarch Caesar 15, Appian, Bellum Civile 2. 149-154.
7.
Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 6. 403-8 for end of siege of Jerusalem.
8.
On Roman involvement in Greece and the creation of the province of Macedonia see R. Kallet Marx, Hegemony to Empire (California, 1996), pp. 57-96.
Chapter 16
1.
Qui vincit non est victor nisi victus fatebur, Ennius, Fragment. 31, 493.
2.
P. Brunt, Italian Manpower (Oxford, 1971), pp. 422-34.
3.
Trophies taken from temples after Cannae, Livy 22. 57. 10-11.
1.
For logistics see J. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War, 264 BC -AD 235 (Leiden, 1999).
2.
For the change in the coinage see M. Crawford, 'War and finance', Journal of Roman Studies 54 (1964), pp. 29-32.
3.
See L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (London, 1984), E. Gabba, Republican Rome: The Army and Allies (Oxford, 1976), and R. Smith, Service in the
Post-Marian Roman Army (Manchester, 1958) for the army in this period.
4.
A. Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy. 2 vols. (Oxford, 1965) represents the most forceful argument for the long-term impact of the Second Punic War. Brunt (1971) criticized this view and cast doubt on the extent of devastation during the Italian campaigns. A good and insightful survey of the debate is to be found in T. Cornell, 'Hannibal's Legacy: The effects of the Hannibalic War on Italy', in T. Cornell, B. Rankov 8c
P. Sabin, The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal British Institute of Classical Studies Supplement 67 (London, 1996), pp. 97-117.
1.
E.g. Sallust, Bellum Catilinae 51. 38.
1.
For the dominance of commercial concerns in Punic thinking see B. Caven, The Punic Wars (London, 1980), passim, esp. pp. 291-4.
Chronology
The Roman consular year usually began in March and as a result the consuls remained in office for the first few months of the year after the date given here. There is some debate over to what extent the Roman calendar was at this period out of synchronization with the modern year. Numerals in brackets after a name denote whether the man had held the consulship before. Consuls who abdicated after a few days or whose election was declared invalid are not included here.
264 Ap. Claudius Caudex M. Fulvius Flaccus
Outbreak of First Punic War; Roman expedition to relieve Messana.
263 M. Valerius Maximus Messala M. Otacilius Crassus
Hiero surrenders and allies Syracuse with Rome.
262 L. Postumius Megellus Q. Mamilius Vitullus
Siege of Agrigentum.
261 L. Valerius Flaccus T. Otacilius Crassus
Fall of Agrigentum; Punic naval squadrons raid Italian coast; Romans decide to build fleet.
260 Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina C. Duilius
Scipio Asina taken prisoner at Lipara; Duilius wins sea battle off Mylae.
259 L. Cornelius Scipio C. Aquillius Florus
Fighting in Corsica and Sardinia as well as Sicily.
258 A. Adius Caiatinus C. Sulpicius Paterculus
Romans win naval battle off Sulci
257 C. Atilius Regulus Cn. Cornelius Blasio
Romans win naval battle off Tyndaris
256 L. Manlius Vulso Longus M. Atilius Regulus - suff. (II)
Romans win naval battle off Ecnomus and invade Africa; Regulus defeats Punic army at Adys; peace negotiations fail.
255 Ser. Fulvius Paetinus Nobilior M. Aemilius Paullus
Regulus defeated by Xanthippus near Tunis; Roman fleet rescues survivors and defeats Punic navy off Hermaeum; heavy Roman losses in storm.
254 Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina (II) A. Atilius Caiatinus (II)
The Fall of Carthage Page 52
