96. It has been dated to the Late Helladic III period (1300–1190 B.C.) and is one of only four Mycenaean bridges of this type to survive. See R. Hope Simpson and D. K. Hagel, Mycenaean Fortifications, Highways, Dams, and Canals (Sävedalen: Paul Åström, 2006); R. Hope Simpson, “The Mycenaean Highways,” Classical Views 42 (1998): 239–60; A. Jansen, “Bronze Age Highways at Mycenae,” Classical Views 41 (1997): 1–16.
97. Morgan, Athletes and Oracles, 209.
98. Ibid.
99. W. J. Slater, “Pelops at Olympia,” GRBS 30 (1989): 485–501; H. Kyrieleis, Anfänge und Frühzeit des Heiligtums von Olympia: Die Ausgrabungen am Pelopion, 1987–1996 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2006); Barringer, “Temple of Zeus at Olympia”; D. E. Gerber, Pindar’s Olympian One: A Commentary (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982); H.-V. Hermann, Olympia: Heiligtum und Wettkampfstätte (Munich: Hirmer, 1972), 53–56.
100. Miller, “Excavations at Nemea, 1983”; S. G. Miller, “Excavations at Nemea, 1973–1974,” Hesperia 44 (1975): 143–72; Miller, Nemea; S. G. Miller, “The Stadium at Nemea and the Nemean Games,” in Coulson and Kyrieleis, Proceedings of an International Symposium on the Olympic Games, 81–86; D. G. Romano, “An Early Stadium at Nemea,” Hesperia 46 (1977): 27–31.
101. First extant mention of Opheltes-Archemoros is in Simonides, preserved by Athenaeus: PMG 553, Athenaeus 9.396e. See also Bachyllides 9.10–14; Pindar, Nemean Ode 9.6–15; Euripides, Hypsipyle; and Apollodoros, Library 3.6; E. Simon, “Archemoros,” AA 94 (1979): 31–45. For the myth, as told by Euripides, see W. E. H. Cockle, Euripides Hypsipyle: Text and Annotation Based on a Re-examination of the Papyri (Rome: Ateneo, 1987).
102. Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.15.2–3.
103. Miller, Nemea, 20; Miller, “Excavations at Nemea, 1983,” 173.
104. Miller, Nemea, 12.
105. D. E. Birge, L. H. Kranack, and S. G. Miller, Excavations at Nemea: Topographical and Architectural Studies: The Sacred Square, the Xenon, and the Bath, Nemea I (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 93.
106. Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.10.
107. E. R. Gebhard, “Rites for Melikertes-Palaimon in the Early Roman Corinthia,” in Urban Religion in Roman Corinth: Interdisciplinary Approaches, ed. D. N. Schowalter and S. J. Friesen (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Divinity School, 2005); E. R. Gebhard and M. W. Dickie, “The View from the Isthmus, ca. 200 to 44 B.C.,” Corinth 20 (2003): 261–78; E. R. Gebhard and M. W. Dickie, “Melikertes-Palaimon, Hero of the Isthmian Games,” in Hägg, Ancient Greek Hero Cult, 159–65; E. R. Gebhard and F. P. Hemans, “University of Chicago Excavations at Isthmia, 1989: III,” Hesperia 67 (1998): 405–56; E. R. Gebhard and F. P. Hemans, “University of Chicago Excavations at Isthmia: II,” Hesperia 67 (1998): 1–63; E. R. Gebhard, “The Evolution of a Pan-Hellenic Sanctuary: From Archaeology Towards History at Isthmia,” in Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches, ed. N. Marinatos and R. Hägg (New York: Routledge, 1993), 154–77; E. R. Gebhard, “The Early Sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia,” AJA 91 (1987): 475–76; D. W. Rupp, “The Lost Classical Palaimonion Found?,” Hesperia 48 (1979): 64–72; Broneer, Isthmia, 2:99–112. I thank Elizabeth Gebhard for her kindness in providing information and bibliography.
108. A. Chaniotis, “Hyakinthia,” ThesCRA, vol. 7, V.2, 164–67; S. Vlizos, “The Amyklaion Revisited: New Observations on a Laconian Sanctuary of Apollo,” in Athens-Sparta: Contributions to the Research on the History and Archaeology of the Two City-States, ed. N. Kaltsas (New York: Alexander S. Onassis Public Benefit Foundation, 2007), 11–23; P. G. Calligas, “From the Amyklaion,” in Philolakon: Lakonian Studies in Honour of Hector Catling, ed. J. M. Sanders (London: British School at Athens, 1992), 31–48; Pettersson, “Cults of Apollo at Sparta”; Amykles Research Project, http://amykles-research-project-en.wikidot.com.
109. Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.18.9–3.195. See I. Margreiter, Die Kleinfunde aus dem Apollon-Heiligtum (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 1988); J. G. Milne, “The Throne of Apollo at Amyklae,” CR 10 (1896): 215–20; Pettersson, “Cults of Apollo at Sparta,” 9.
110. By around 500 B.C., the sculptor Bathykles of Magnesia was brought in to build a huge marble throne around the statue. Delivorrias, “Throne of Apollo at the Amyklaion”; E. Georgoulaki, “Le type iconographique de la statue cultuelle d’Apollon Amyklaios: Un emprunt oriental?,” Kernos 7 (1994): 95–118; A. Faustoferri, “The Throne of Apollo at Amyklai: Its Significance and Chronology,” in Sculpture from Arcadia and Laconia, ed. O. Palagia and W. Coulson (Oxford: Oxbow, 1993), 159–66.
111. Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.18.6–8.
112. A. Chaniotis, “Hyakinthia,” ThesCRA, vol. 7, V.2, 164–67; A. Brelich, Paides e Parthenoi (Rome: Ateneo, 1969), 1, 139–54, 171–91; Pettersson, “Cults of Apollo at Sparta.”
113. C. Dietrich, “The Dorian Hyacinthia: A Survival from the Bronze Age,” Kadmos 14 (1975): 133–42. M. J. Mellink, Hyakinthos (Utrecht: Kemink, 1943).
114. K. Demakopoulou, “Τό μυκηναϊκό ίερó στο Ἀμυκλαἰο:μια νέα προσέγγιση,” British School at Athens Studies 16 (2009): 95–104; K. Demakopoulou, Τό μυκηναϊκό ἱερό στό Ἀμυκλαίο και ἡ ΥΕ III Γ περίοδος στη Λακωνία (Athens, 1982).
115. Herodotus, Histories 9.7; Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 5.23.4–5; Xenophon, Hellenika 4.5.11.
116. Pettersson, “Cults of Apollo at Sparta”; A. Chaniotis, “Hyakinthia,” ThesCRA, vol. 7, V.2, 164–67.
117. Euripides, Erechtheus F 370.71–74 Kannicht; Demosthenes, Funeral Speech 27.
118. Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods, 16; Clement of Alexandria, 10.26; Philostratos, Imagines 1.24; Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.162–219, 13.395; Ovid, Fasti 5.22.
119. Phanodemos, FGrH 325 F 4. Some have taken this to be at Sphendonai; others see it as a hill of purple color.
120. See Harpokration and Suda, s.v. Ὑακινθίδες. According to Apollodoros, Library 3.15.8, the names of the daughters of Hyakinthos were Antheis, Aigle, Lytaia, and Orthaia; they are said to have been sacrificed to save Athens from an attack led by Minos. According to yet another version of the story (Hyginus, Fabulae 238.2), Hyakinthos sacrificed Antheis alone in response to an oracle.
121. J. Fontenrose, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959); Ogden, Drakon, 40–48; C. Watkins, How to Kill a Dragon (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); J. Katz, “To Turn a Blind Eel,” Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual UCLA Indo-European Conference 16 (2005): 259–96; Morgan, Athletes and Oracles.
122. Nagy, Best of the Achaeans, 121–24; E. Suárez de la Torre, “Neoptolemos at Delphi,” Kernos 10 (1997): 153–76; L. Muellner, The Anger of Achilles: Mēnis in Greek Epic (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); I. Rutherford, Pindar’s Paeans: A Reading of the Fragments with a Survey of the Genre (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); M. Stansbury-O’Donnell, “Polygnotos’s Iliupersis: A New Reconstruction,” AJA 93 (1989): 203–15; L. Woodbury, “Neoptolemus at Delphi: Pindar, Nem. 7.30 ff.,” Phoenix 33 (1979): 95–133; J. Fontenrose, The Cult and Myth of Pyrros at Delphi (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 191–266, plates 18–19.
123. Scholiast on Pindar, Nemean Ode 7.62.
124. Strabo, Geography 9.421; Pausanias, Description of Greece 10.24.6.
125. Scott, Delphi and Olympia, 94, 119–120, 127, fig. 5.5; A. Jacquemin, Offrandes monumentales à Delphes (Paris: De Boccard, 1999); J. Pouilloux, Fouilles de Delphes II: Topographe et architecture: La région nord du sanctuaire de l’époque archaïque à la fin du sanctuaire (Paris: De Boccard, 1960).
126. Heliodoros, Aethiopika 2.34.3. For Aethiopika, see B. P. Reardon, Collected Ancient Greek Novels (1989; Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 349–588. See also J. Pouilloux and G. Roux, Énigmes à Delphes (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1963).
127. Ferrari, Alcman, 146–47.
128. Rykwert, Dancing Column, 327–31; Ferrari, Alcman, 146–47; J. Bous
quet, “Delphes et les Aglaurides d’Athènes,” BCH 88 (1964): 655–75; J. L. Martinez, “La colonne des danseuses de Delphes,” CRAI (1997): 35–46; Louvre Museum and Insight Project, “Reconstruction of Acanthus Column in Delphi,” http://www.insightdigital.org/entry/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=146&Itemid=438 (accessed April 26, 2013).
129. For a discussion of the importance of Pyrrhos and his death at Delphi, see Nagy, Best of the Achaeans, 118–41. Pindar, Nemean 7.44–47, refers to Pyrrhos as the one who will “preside over the Heroes’ processions.”
130. R. Balot, “Democratizing Courage in Classical Athens,” in Pritchard, War, Democracy, and Culture, 88–108.
7 THE PANATHENAIA
1. Duncan, My Life, 95–100, quotation from 98. P. Kurth, Isadora: A Sensational Life (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 2001), 109–16.
2. Duncan, My Life, 100–103.
3. I. Duncan, “The Art of the Dance,” Theatre Arts Monthly (1928), republished as “The Parthenon,” in The Art of the Dance, ed. S. Cheney (New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1969), 65. I am grateful to Lori Belilove, director of the Isadora Duncan Dance Foundation, for her kindness in helping with my research.
4. I thank Rob Lancefield of the Davison Art Gallery at Wesleyan University for making a new scan of this image from their collection. See Edward Steichen: The Early Years Portfolio, 1900–1927 (Gordonsville, Ga.: Aperture, 1991).
5. Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 556–660; Frantz, Late Antiquity, 51–56. Theodosios’s edict of February 21, A.D. 391, banned sacrifices and closed temples; another of November 8, 392, banned sacrifices and divination and burning incense. There is no surviving evidence for the Panathenaia after 391.
6. See Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 5–7; for the Small, or Lesser, Panathenaia, 72–119; for the Great, or Greater, Panathenaia, 120–385, 505–660. The Great Panathenaia was quadrennial, that is, it took place every fourth year, if one counts by starting with zero. The Greeks, however, had no zero and started counting from the number one. They therefore thought of their Great Panathenaia as occurring in the fifth year, making it penteteric.
7. Sourvinou-Inwood, Athenian Myths and Festivals, 263–311; Simon, Festivals of Attica, 55–72; Parker, Polytheism and Society, 253–69; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 75–76, 87–90, 120–66; Parker, Athenian Religion, 91; Deubner, Attische Feste, 22–35.
8. Davies, “Athenian Citizenship,” 106–7; J. S. Traill, The Political Organization of Attica: A Study of the Demes, Trittyes, and Phylai, and Their Representation in the Athenian Council, Hesperia Supplement 14 (Princeton, N.J.: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1974).
9. B. Nagy, “The Athenian Athlothetai,” GRBS 19 (1978): 307–13; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia.”
10. Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 60; B. Nagy, “The Athenian Athlothetai,” GRBS 19 (1978): 307–13; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 455–463.
11. The earliest evidence for the annual peplos at the Small Panathenaia dates to 108/107 B.C.; see IG II2 1036 + 1060 (SEG 28.90, SEG 52.117, SEG 53.143). See B. Nagy, “The Ritual in Slab V,” and Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 97–103. For a summary of scholarship and bibliography on the peplos, see Mansfield, “Robe of Athena,” 39–355; for the argument that there were two peploi, see 2–118. Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 97–103 and 173–86, is unconvinced by Mansfield’s argument (174).
12. Boutsikas, “Timing of the Panathenaia.”
13. See Connelly, “Towards an Archaeology of Performance,” 313–39. For ritual dynamics in the Greek world, see Chaniotis, Ritual Dynamics in the Ancient Mediterranean; Chaniotis, “Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean”; Chaniotis, “Rituals Between Norms and Emotions”; A. Chaniotis, “Theater Rituals,” in The Greek Theatre and Festivals: Documentary Studies, ed. P. Wilson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 48–66; Chaniotis, “From Woman to Woman”; Chaniotis, “Dynamics of Ritual Norms in Greek Cult”; Chaniotis, “Dynamic of Emotions”; Mylonopoulos, “Greek Sanctuaries”; I. Mylonopoulos, “The Dynamics of Ritual Space in the Hellenistic and Roman East,” Kernos 21 (2008): 9–39; Connelly, Portrait of a Priestess, 29–31, 153–57. For aesthetics and multimedia aspects of rituals and festivals, see Bierl, Ritual and Performativity; A. Bierl, “Prozessionen auf der griechischen Bühne: Performativität des einziehenden Chors als Manifestation des Dionysos in der Parodos der Euripideischen Bakchen,” in Medialität der Prozession: Performanz ritueller Bewegung in Texten und Bildern der Vormoderne—Médialité de la procession: performance du movement rituel en textes et en images à l’époque pré-moderne, ed. K. Gvozdeva (Heidelberg: Winter, 2011), 35–61; A. Bierl, “Pädramatik auf der antiken Bühne: Das attische Drama als Spiel und ästhetischer Diskurs,” in Lücken sehen: Beiträge zu Theater und Performanz: Festschrift für Hans-Thies Lehmann zum 66. Geburtstag, ed. M. Gross and P. Primavesi (Heidelberg: Winter, 2010), 69–82; A. Kavoulaki, “Choral Self-Awareness: On the Introductory Anapaests of Aeschylus’ Supplices,” in Archaic and Classical Choral Song: Performance, Politics, and Dissemination, ed. L. Athanassaki and E. Bowie (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), 365–90. I thank Darby English for helpful discussions of this material.
14. Smith, Athens, 26–27; L. E. Pearce, “Sacred Texts and Canonicity: Mesopotamia,” in Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, ed. S. I. Johnston (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2004), 627–28.
15. S. D. Houston, “Impersonation, Dance, and the Problem of Spectacle Among the Classic Maya,” in Inomata and Coben, Archaeology of Performance, 139, 144; N. Grube, “Classic Maya Dance: Evidence from Hieroglyphs and Iconography,” Ancient Mesoamerica 3 (1992): 201–18.
16. R. C. T. Parker, “Greek Religion,” in J. Boardman, J. Griffin, and O. Murray, Oxford History of the Classical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 254–74; Parker, Polytheism and Society; Bremmer, Greek Religion; Kearns, “Order, Interaction, Authority”; Connelly, Portrait of a Priestess, 6.
17. Connelly, Portrait of a Priestess, 2–5, 24–55, 85–87, 90–92, 197–215.
18. J. Blok, “Virtual Voices: Towards a Choreography of Women’s Speech in Classical Athens,” in Making Silence Speak: Women’s Voices in Greek Literature and Society, ed. A. P. M. H. Lardinois and L. McClure (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), 112–14; Kyle, Sport and Spectacle, 167; Ober, Democracy and Knowledge, 195–96; R. Osborne, The World of Athens: An Introduction to Classical Athenian Culture (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 116–17, who says there are 130 datable festivals plus more that are not datable.
19. Hesiod, Theogony 535–65, and Pseudo-Hyginus, Astronomica 2.15, tell the story of how Prometheus, having stolen fire, prepared an animal sacrifice for Zeus. He divided the portions of the slaughtered animal into two groups: one with ox meat and juicy innards wrapped up in stomach lining and the other with ox bones wrapped up in their own rich fat. Prometheus offered Zeus a choice between the two, and Zeus took the bundle of inedible bones in fat, since it looked tastier. Thereafter gods always received the inedible parts of the sacrificial victim while the tasty cuts were reserved for humankind.
20. J. Swaddling, The Ancient Olympic Games (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999), 11; Kyle, Sport and Spectacle, 8.
21. Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 490–93.
22. P. Themelis, “Panathenaic Prizes and Dedications,” in Palagia and Choremi-Spetsieri, Panathenaic Games, 21–32; Kyle, “Gifts and Glory”; Tracy and Habicht, “New and Old Panathenaic Victor Lists.”
23. Athenian colonists at Brea sent a cow and panoply to the Great Panathenaia in the third quarter of the fifth century. IG I3 46.15–16.
24. J. Shear, “Prizes from Athens: The List of Panathenaic Prizes and the Sacred Oil,” ZPE 142 (2003): 87–108; P. Siewert, “Zum historischen Hintergrund der frühen Panathenäen und Preisamphoren,” in Panathenaïka: Symposion zu den Panathenäischen Preisamphoren, Rauischholzhausen 25.11.–29.11. 1998, ed. M. Bentz and N. Eschbach (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern,
2001); M. Bentz, Panathenäische Preisamphoren: Eine athenische Vasengattung und ihre Funktion vom 6.–4. Jahrhundert v. Chr. (Basel: Vereinigung der Freunde Antiker Kunst, 1998); Kyle, “Gifts and Glory”; R. Hamilton, “Panathenaic Amphoras: The Other Side,” in Neils, Worshipping Athena, 137–62; J. Neils, “Panathenaic Amphoras: Their Meaning, Makers, and Markets,” in Neils, Goddess and Polis, 29–51; R. Hampe, “Zu den panathenäische Amphoren,” in Antikes und modernes Griechenland, ed. R. Hampe (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 1984), 145–49; J. R. Brandt, “Archaeologica Panathenaica I: Panathenaic Prize-Amphorae from the Sixth Century B.C.,” Acta ad Archaeologiam et Artium Historiam Pertinentia 8 (1978): 1–23; E. von Brauchitsch, Die Panathenäischen Preisamphoren (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1910).
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