25. C. Hadziaslani, ТΩΝ ΑΘΗΝΗΘΕΝ ΑΘΛΩΝ (Athens: Acropolis Restoration Service, Department of Information and Education, 2003).
26. British Museum GR 1842.0728.834, Burgon Group (B130). ABV 89; Para. 33, no. 1; Addenda2 24; Neils, Goddess and Polis, 30, 93; Bentz, Panathenäische Preisamphoren, 123.
27. Metropolitan Museum of Art 1989.21.89; 540–30 B.C. The reduced size of this vase and absence of the official inscription (“from the games at Athens”) indicate that this was not actually a prize amphora but modeled on one. M. B. Moore, “The Princeton Painter in New York,” MMAJ 42 (2007): 26, 28, 30, 42, 45; E. J. Milleker, “Ancient Art: Gifts from the Norbert Schimmel Collection,” MMAB 49 (1992): 40–41; M. Popkin, “Roosters, Columns, and Athena on Early Panathenaic Prize Amphoras: Symbols of a New Athenian Identity,” Hesperia 81 (2012): 207–35.
28. Mikalson, Sacred and Civil Calendar, 34 and 199, summarizes the various reconstructions of the time span of the festival, some of which have it starting as early as the twenty-first of Hekatombaion. See also Neils, Goddess and Polis; J. Neils, “The Panathenaia: An Introduction,” in Neils, Goddess and Polis, 13–27; J. Neils, “The Panathenaia and Kleisthenic Ideology,” in Coulson et al., Archaeology of Athens and Attica Under the Democracy, 151–60; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 7–8; Simon, Festivals of Attica, 55.
29. Kallisthenes, FGrH 124 F 52.
30. IG II2 2311; SEG 37.129, with large bibliography. See Tracey and Habicht, “New and Old Panathenaic Victor Lists,” 187–236; Neils, Goddess and Polis, 15–17, fig. 1; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 237, 389, 1056–59, 1162–66.
31. See Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 83–84.
32. See Hurwit, Age of Perikles, 214–16, 243; Goette, Athens, Attica, and the Megarid, 53–54. The building identified as the Odeion of Perikles measures roughly 62.4 by 68.6 meters (200 by 225 feet) and is believed to have held four thousand to five thousand people. Plutarch, Life of Perikles 13.5–6, describes it: “The Odeion, or music room, which in its interior was full of seats and ranges of pillars, and outside had its roof made to slope and descend from one single point at the top, was constructed, we are told, in imitation of the king of Persia’s pavilion [skênê]. This was done by Perikles’s order.” Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.20.4, also mentions that the Odeion looked like Xerxes’s tent. Excavations on the site have revealed an arrangement of internal pillars, set in nine rows of ten, supporting the roof in a manner reminiscent of poles in a tent. We are told by Vitruvius, Ten Books of Architecture 5.9.1, that the building was covered with timber from captured Persian ships. Its function as a music hall, however, is contested and some think it was a school or lecture hall.
33. The “Hephaestia inscription” of 421 B.C., IG I3 82, mentions a penteteris, the Agora, and a musical contest for Athena and Hephaistos; SEG 54.46, with bibliography.
34. E. Csapo and W. J. Slater, eds., The Context of Athenian Drama (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), 79–80, 109–10; Hurwit, Athenian Acropolis, 216–17.
35. T. Inomata and L. Coben have explored this phenomenon in Classic Maya and Inka contexts; see Archaeology of Performance.
36. Lykourgos, Against Leokrates 102. Translation: Burtt, Minor Attic Orators.
37. For discussion of the Panathenaic Regulation see G. Nagy, “Performing and Reperforming of Masterpieces,” 4.6–11, and Plato’s Rhapsody and Homer’s Music, 36–37. See also H. A. Shapiro, “Hipparchos and the Rhapsodes,” in Cultural Poetics in Archaic Greece: Cult, Performance, Poetics, ed. C. Dougherty and L. Kurke (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 92–107.
38. In the pseudo-Platonic dialogue known as the Hipparchos 228b–c, Sokrates says that Hipparchos was “the first to bring over to this land the verses of Homer, and he required the rhapsodes at the Panathenaia to go through these verses in sequence, by relay, just as they do even nowadays”; translation by G. Nagy, “Performing and Reperforming of Masterpieces,” 19. For rhapsodic events, see Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 365–68.
39. See victors’ list, SEG 41.115, col. 3.39–43, dating to 162/161 B.C.
40. Plutarch, Life of Perikles 13.6.
41. H. A. Shapiro, “Les rhapsodes aux Panathénées et la céramique à Athènes à l’époque archaïque,” in Culture et cité: L’avènement d’Athènes à l’époque archaïque, ed. A. Verbanck-Piérard and D. Viviers (Brussels: De Bouccard, 1995), 127–37; H. A. Shapiro, “Mousikoi Agones: Music and Poetry at the Panathenaia,” in Neils, Goddess and Polis, 53–75; H. Kotsidu, Die musischen Agone der Panathenäean in archaischer und klassischer Zeit: Eine historisch-archäologische Untersuchung (Munich: Tuduv, 1991). For the aulos, see West, Ancient Greek Music, 1–2, 50–56, 61–70, 81–109; P. Wilson, “The Aulos in Athens,” in Goldhill and Osborne, Performance Culture and Athenian Democracy, 58–95, 69–79; C. Schafter, “Musical Victories in Early Classical Vase Painting,” AJA 95 (1991): 333–34; M. F. Vos, “Aulodic and Auletic Contests,” in Enthousiasmos: Essays in Greek and Related Pottery Presented to J. M. Hemelrijk, ed. H. A. G. Brijder, A. A. Drukker, and C. W. Neeft (Amsterdam: Allard Pierson Museum, 1986), 122–30.
42. Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia”; for aulos and kythara competitions, see 352–65; for rhapsodic contests, see 365–68.
43. West, Ancient Greek Music, 53–56.
44. Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 352–65.
45. Boegehold, “Group and Single Competitions at the Panathenaia”; Kyle, “Gifts and Glory”; D. Kyle, “The Panathenaic Games: Sacred and Civic Athletics,” in Neils, Goddess and Polis, 77–101; Kyle, Athletics in Ancient Athens; N. B. Crowther, “Studies in Greek Athletics, Part II,” CW 79 (1985–1986): 73–135; N. B. Crowther, “Studies in Greek Athletics, Part I,” CW 78 (1984–1985): 497–558; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 244–54; A. J. Papalas, “Boy Athletes in Ancient Greece,” Stadion 17 (1991): 165–92.
46. Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 244–54.
47. G. Waddell, “The Greek Pentathlon,” in Greek Vases in the J. Paul Getty Museum 5 (Malibu, Calif.: J. Paul Getty Museum, 1991), 99–106; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 254–57.
48. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 1916.16.71; ABV 404, no. 8; Para. 175, no. 8; Bentz, Panathenäische Preisamphoren, 139, no. 5.009, 44–45.
49. Pliny, Natural History 34.59; Pausanias, Description of Greece 6.4.1–3.
50. N. B. Crowther, “Reflections on Greek Equestrian Events, Violence, and Spectator Attitudes,” Nikephoros 7 (1994): 121–33; D. Bell, “The Horse Race κέλης in Ancient Greece from the Pre-classical Period to the First Century B.C.,” Stadion 15 (1989): 167–90; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 279–89; J. McK. Camp, Horses and Horsemanship in the Athenian Agora, Agora Picture Book 24 (Princeton, N.J.: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1998); V. Olivová, “Chariot Racing in the Ancient World,” Nikephoros 2 (1989): 65–88.
51. Plato, Laws 7.815a; E. L. Wheeler, “Hoplomachia and Greek Dances in Arms,” GRBS 23 (1982): 223–33; J.-C. Pousat, “Une base signée du Musée National d’Athènes: Pyrrhichistes victorieux,” BCH 91 (1967): 102–10; Ferrari Pinney, “Pallas and Panathenaea,” 468–73; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 323–30.
52. Dionysios of Halikarnassos, Roman Antiquities 7.72.7; see Ferrari Pinney, “Pallas and Panathenaea”; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 38–43 (for pyrrhike as victory dance following Gigantomachy) and 323–31 (for Panathenaic event); P. Ceccarelli, La pirrica nell’antichit à greco romana: Studi sulla danza armata (Pisa: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali, 1998).
53. E. Vanderpool, “Victories in the Anthippasia,” Hesperia 43 (1974): 311–13; Xenophon, Hipparchikos 3.10–131; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 315–18.
54. Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 340–45.
55. Crowther, “Male Beauty Contests”; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 331–34; Boegehold, “Group and Single Competitions at the Panathenaia,” 95–103.
56. Aristotle,
Athenian Constitution 60.3; IG II2 2311; Crowther, “Male Beauty Contests,” 286.
57. We do hear of three other sites (Rhodes, Sestos, and Sparta) where male beauty contests took place. Crowther, “Male Beauty Contests,” 286–88. Crowther mentions euandria at five festivals (including the Panathenaia and the Theseia at Athens).
58. Pseudo-Andokides, Against Alkibiades 4.42.
59. See scholiast on Plato, Phaidros 231e, for references to ephebes and altar of Eros; and Plutarch, Life of Solon 1.4, again, for altar of Eros. See Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 335–39; J. R. S. Sterrett, “The Torch-Race: A Commentary on the Agamemnon of Aeschylus vv. 324–326,” AJP 22 (1901): 393–419; Graf, “Lampadedromia”; Kyle, Athletics in Athens, 190–93; Deubner, Attische Feste, 211–13; Simon, Festivals of Attica, 53–54, 63–64; Parke, Festivals of the Athenians, 45–46, 150–51, 171–73.
60. IG II2 2311.88–89; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 335–39.
61. For night festivals, see C. Trümpy, “Feste zur Vollmondszeit: Die religiösen Feiern Attikas im Monatlauf und der vorgeschichtliche attische Kultkalendar,” ZPE (1998): 109–15. For pannychis at the Small Panathenaia, see Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 83–84, who argues that the pannychis was held, in fact, later in the week and after the sacrifices on 28 Hekatombaion. It does seem plausible that all-night dancing might take place after the feast, rather than before it. Shear points to the Bendideia (Plato, Republic 1.328a) as a festival that concluded with a pannychis.
62. Plato, Laws 672e. See Calame, Choruses of Young Women, 222–38, on the socializing function of the chorus; Connelly, “Towards an Archaeology of Performance,” 324–39.
63. Connelly, “Towards an Archaeology of Performance,” 331–33.
64. L. B. Holland, “Erechtheum Paper II: The Strong House of Erechtheus,” AJA 28 (1924): 142–69; L. B. Holland, “Erechtheum Papers III: The Post-Persian,” AJA 28 (1924): 402–25; L. B. Holland, “Erechtheum Papers IV: The Building Called the Erechtheum,” AJA 28 (1924): 425–34; Lesk, “Erechtheion and Its Reception,” 88, 114, 115, 225, 226. For discussion of staircases and performance space, see I. Nielsen, Cultic Theatres and Ritual Drama: A Study in Regional Development and Religious Interchange Between East and West in Antiquity (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2002), 69–73, 86–128, 167–74; Mylonopoulos, “Greek Sanctuaries,” 94–99.
65. Euripides, Ion 492–505.
66. For Kekropids, see Apollodoros, Library 3.14.6. For Erechtheids, see Apollodoros, Library 3.15.4; Euripides, Ion 277–82; Hyginus, Fabulae 46. A few fragmentary phrases from the Erechtheus, translated in Collard and Cropp’s Loeb edition, Euripides VII: Fragments, 388–393, might possibly allude to the suicide of the older daughters in jumping off the Acropolis. See Erechtheus F 370.37, “to you the dear one of my daughters”; F 370.38–39, “funeral rite”…“I have looked upon your … limbs(?)”
67. Translation: Kovacs, Euripides: Children of Heracles, 84–87, with minor changes. J. Wilkins offers a commentary on these lines, Euripides, Heraclidae (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 151–52.
68. C. Seltmann, “Group H” in Athens: Its History and Coinage (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1924), 72–78, 189–92. I am grateful to Dr. Peter van Alfen for helpful discussions of this material.
69. C. M. Kraay, Archaic and Classical Greek Coins (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 63–77.
70. Euripides, Erechtheus F 350 Kannicht.
71. Euripides, Erechtheus F 351 Kannicht.
72. See G. Nagy, Homer the Preclassic (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 239, for women of Troy ululating as they extend their hands in a choreographed ritual gesture to Athena: “with a cry of ololu! all of them lift up their hands to Athena” (Iliad 6.301). Nagy points out that ololuzein is characteristic of female choruses on Lesbos (and elsewhere); in Alkaios, the word ololuge is described as hiere, “sacred.” I thank Greg Nagy for very helpful conversations and for sharing bibliographical references.
73. American Heritage Dictionary, 4th ed., s.v. “ululate”; Online Etymology Dictionary, s.v. “ululation,” http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ululation.
74. Pliny, Natural History 10.33. I thank David S. Levene for drawing this to my attention.
75. For ululation in Greek antiquity, see Diggle, Euripidea, 477–80; E. Calderón, “A propósito de ὀλολυγών (Arato, Phaenomena 948),” Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica 67 (2001): 133–39; L. Gernet, Les grecs sans miracle (Paris: La Découverte, 1983), 247–57; L. Deubner, Kleine Schriften zur klassischen Altertumskunde (Hain: Königstein/Ts, 1982), 607–34; J. Rudhardt, Notions fondamentales de la pensée religieuse et actes constitutifs du culte dans la Grèce classique (1958; Paris: Picard, 1992), 178–80. I am grateful to Jan Bremmer for sharing bibliographical references and for helpful discussions of this material.
76. I am indebted to Anton Bierl for making this point.
77. Boutsikas, “Astronomical Evidence for the Timing of the Panathenaia,” 307.
78. Boutsikas writes: “If observed from the north porch of the Erechtheion or nearby, these movements of Draco would have been an impressive sight as the constellation is one of the largest in the sky. The constellation, although not particularly bright today, would have been extremely prominent in an era before widespread light pollution.”
79. Boutsikas and Hannah, “Aitia, Astronomy, and the Timing of the Arrhēphoria,” 238.
80. A. Choisy takes up the ancient experience of space on the Acropolis, discussing circulation patterns and directions of movement in Histoire de l’architecture (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints, 1899), 327–34, 409–22, especially in a long paragraph subtitled: “Le pittoresque dans l’art grec: Partis dissymétriques, pondération des masses: Exemple de l’Acropole d’Athènes.” I thank Yves-Alain Bois for drawing this to my attention. See also T. Mandoul, Entre raison et utopie: L’histoire de l’architecture d’Auguste Choisy (Wavre: Mardaga, 2008), 222–28, 234–47.
81. Deubner, Attische Feste, 22–35; Simon, Festivals of Attica, 55–72; Parker, Athenian Religion, 91; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 75–76, 87–90, 120–66; Parker, Polytheism and Society, 253–69; Sourvinou-Inwood, Athenian Myths and Festivals, 263–311; L. Maurizio, “ ‘The Panathenaic Procession: Athens’ Participatory Democracy on Display?,” in Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-Century Athens, ed. D. Boedeker and K. A. Raaflaub (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 297–317; Connolly and Dodge, Ancient City; Graf, “Pompai in Greece.”
82. Connelly, Portrait of a Priestess, 33–39.
83. Stavros Nearchos Collection, ca. 560–550 B.C. LIMC 2, s.v. “Athena,” no. 574; L. I. Marangou, Ancient Greek Art from the Collection of Stavros S. Niarchos (Athens: N. P. Goulandris Foundation, Museum of Cycladic Art, 1995), 86–93, no. 12, with full bibliography. Of course, this cannot represent a historical Panathenaic procession, as we see no hecatomb of cattle but a sow and a pig instead, unheard-of at the Panathenaia. For full discussion, see Connelly, Portrait of a Priestess, 187–89.
84. Connelly, “Towards an Archaeology of Performance,” 320–24.
85. Karyatids of even earlier date, ca. 540–530 B.C. (Delphi inv. 1203), are sometimes attributed to the Knidian Treasury; see Ridgway, Prayers in Stone, 145–50; Croissant, Les protomés féminines archaïques, 71–82. For the Siphnian Treasury karyatids, ca. 530–525 B.C., see Ridgway, Prayers in Stone, 147–48, 168–69n11; Croissant, Les protomés féminines archaïques, 106–8.
86. Connelly, Portrait of a Priestess, 124–25; Connelly, “Towards an Archaeology of Performance,” 320-21.
87. Connelly, Portrait of a Priestess, 125; Connelly, “Towards an Archaeology of Performance,” 321–23.
88. As Angelos Chaniotis has pointed out (personal communication), this same strategy can be seen in the Nike Apteros, or “Wingless Victory,” whose wings were clipped to keep it from flying away, rendering Victory ever present within the sanctuary.
89. See, for example, in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, A Temple Procession at Night, Company School, Tanjavur (Tanjore), Tamil Nadu, ca. 1830.
90. See C. Branfoot, “Approaching the Temple in Nayaka-Period Madurai: The Kūţal Alakar Temple,” Artibus Asiae 60 (2000): 197–221; C. Branfoot, Gods on the Move: Architecture and Ritual in the South Indian Temple (London: Society for South Asian Studies, 2007). I thank Tamara Sears for alerting me to helpful bibliography.
91. Demosthenes, Erotikos 23–29. N. B. Crowther, “The Apobates Reconsidered (Demosthenes lxi 23–9),” JHS 111 (1991): 174–76; M. Gisler-Hurwiler, “À propos des apobates et de quelques cavaliers de la frise nord du Parthénon,” in Schmidt, Kanon, 15–18; Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 299–310; Neils and Schultz, “Erechtheus and the Apobates.” Thompson, “Panathenaic Festival,” 227, suggests that the apobates event dates back as early as the eighth or seventh century B.C. on the basis of late Geometric vases showing armed chariot riders.
92. Plato Comicus, F 199 Kassel-Austin; Plutarch, Life of Themistokles 32–35.
93. Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 339–40.
94. S. R. F. Price, Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 3–4.
95. Based on Kallisthenes, FGrH 124 F 52. The first identification of the Panathenaia as a celebration of Athena’s birthday was advanced by L. Preller and C. Robert, Griechische Mythologie I: Theogonie und Götter, 4th ed. (1894; Berlin: Weidmann, 1967), 212n2; W. Schmidt, Geburtstag im Altertum (Giessen: A. Töpelmann, 1908), 98–101; Deubner, Attische Feste, 23n10, summarized by Shear, “Polis and Panathenaia,” 29–30. See also Parke, Festivals, 33; Simon, Festivals of Attica, 55; Neils, Goddess and Polis, 14–15; V. Wohl, “Εὐσεβείας ἕνεκα καὶ φιλοτιμίας: Hegemony and Democracy at the Panathenaia,” ClMed 47 (1996): 25.
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