From Pole to Pole

by Garth James Cameron

  Riiser-Larsen criticised Nobile for sleeping most of the way from Vadsø to Kings Bay on May 6–7, 1926. More importantly, Nobile had elected to depart Vadsø with one of the three engines out of action. There were spare engines available at Vadsø, and the engine could have been changed at the mast. Another motor failed during the flight, something that was a distinct possibility, and for some hours Norge flew on one engine. The decision to make a flight across the Barents Sea on two engines was clearly a significant error of judgment and yet does not figure in the catalog of complaints against Nobile.

  It was alleged that Nobile had shouted and cried when attempting to regain control of Norge over the Chukchi Sea late in the flight from the North Pole to Alaska. Nobile denied this and it is certain that he got the airship under control and was entitled to be stressed. No one would be on top of his game after 90 hours with only a few hours of sleep. They were about 60 hours into the flight at that stage, and Nobile had had little sleep the day before the take-off. He, more than most of the others aboard, had had to cope with several weeks with many hours flying and few hours of sleep.

  Riiser-Larsen wrote that Nobile ceased to function adequately in the final hours of the flight. On one occasion Nobile was on the elevator wheel and Riiser-Larsen was maintaining a lookout out forward in the poor visibility. Riiser-Larsen saw that they were descending and called out to Nobile to raise the nose. Amundsen wrote that Nobile stood as if in a trance and did nothing, and Riiser-Larsen had to grab the wheel and apply nose up elevator. Nobile wrote that he and Riiser-Larsen were working as a team, and Riiser-Larsen called out and gestured towards the wheel simply to alert him to the proximity of the ground. They were so low that when the airship pitched up, as intended, they looked aft and watched the rear engine car to see if it would hit the ground. Whatever happened, it seems clear that Norge avoided diving into the surface by only a few feet. Nobile pointed to Amundsen’s technical mistakes when writing about the flight. Amundsen did use the word rudder when referring to the elevator, but he was in good company as Wilbur and Orville Wright used “front rudder” when referring to what came to be described as the elevator. Amundsen claimed that Nobile had been confused, and claimed that a line of position could give them latitude and longitude when it could only give them latitude. Who can be sure what happened when all were at the end of their physical endurance? Then there was the issue of the Italian uniforms. Nobile said that the officers’ uniforms worn after the flight had been worn under the cold weather gear. Amundsen accused him of carrying the heavy uniforms in spite of the critical importance of minimum weight at take-off. Ellsworth wrote ten years later that Amundsen had seen the parcel of uniforms on Norge on the day of departure and ordered it removed, but this does not ring true. Either they were worn under the cold weather gear or Nobile was dissembling when he wrote about them.

  One thing is clear, Amundsen chose to criticise Nobile when Nobile had done no more than respond to Mussolini’s lead in emphasising Italy’s major contribution to the flight and its success. Doctor Thommessen said that he estimated that Italy had contributed the most to the finances of the 1926 flight, Norway the second greatest amount, and the United States (Ellsworth) $100,000, a considerable amount, but less than the other two countries.

  Eighty-seven years after the flight, it is not possible to say what really happened, and I am not sure that it is all that important. Riiser-Larsen emerges from the story as an authentic hero, skilful and strong when those attributes were needed, and surely posterity owes the others our admiration for their many virtues. Without Amundsen’s prestige and courage, Nobile’s engineering and piloting knowledge, Riiser-Larsen’s navigation skills, strength, and endurance, and the skills and endurance of the crew, there would have been no flight. We do know that Amundsen, Nobile, and their crew achieved what no one had achieved before. They had flown to the North Pole, across the Polar Ocean to Alaska, filled in parts of the map which had been blank since the beginning of geography, proved that aircraft were the way of the future, and all of them were alive to enjoy the acclaim. Everyone has shortcomings and makes mistakes, Amundsen and Nobile are no exceptions. We should discard the petty controversies and admire them for their energy, imagination, skills, and achievements.

  On December 24, 1927, came the news that Oscar Omdal was missing over the Atlantic. Omdal had been recruited by Bernt Balchen to be reserve pilot on Richard Byrd’s first Antarctic expedition on which he would attempt to fly to the South Pole. The expedition was due to last from 1928–1930. While Omdal was waiting he was engaged to fly a Sikorsky S-36 amphibian named Dawn and owned by property developer Francis Wilson Grayson.

  The Sikorsky S-36 amphibian Dawn owned by Francis Grayson. On December 23, 1927, Oscar Omdal took off from New York bound for Harbour Grace, Newfoundland on the first leg of a Trans-Atlantic flight with the ultimate destination of Copenhagen, Denmark. Aboard were Omdal, Grayson, navigator Brice Goldsborough, and radio-operator Frank Koehler. The aircraft failed to arrive, and no trace of the aeroplane or its crew was ever found.

  Grayson had made two previous attempts to fly the Atlantic with pilot Wilmer Stultz, a navigator, and a radio operator. Both attempts were made from Old Orchard Beach, Maine in October 1927. On the first, the aeroplane encountered a strong headwind soon after take-off, and was reluctant to climb. Fuel was jettisoned and a safe return was made. On the second attempt, the Sikorsky was 500 nm east of America when the pilot decided to turn back, much to the annoyance of Grayson. Omdal was a replacement for Stultz. On December 23, 1927, Omdal, Grayson, navigator Brice Goldsborough, and radio operator Frank Koehler took off from Curtiss Field, New York bound for Harbour Grace, Newfoundland with the ultimate destination of Copenhagen, Denmark. They reported heavy icing off Boston, and the aircraft failed to arrive at Harbour Grace. No trace of the Dawn or its occupants was ever found. Aviation was dangerous in those days. Navigator Goldsborough had a son who would die in an aircraft accident at the age of 20 in 1930.

  My Life as an Explorer was a bitter and small-minded effort by a man who had deserved every ounce of the respect and affection he garnered from his achievements. Amundsen biographer Bomann-Larsen described this part of Amundsen’s life as “literary suicide.” The book was released in a number of languages, but never quite made it to the bestseller lists. Even people who admired Amundsen were shocked by the bitter tone and the lack of generosity of spirit the book displayed. It was as if he had been transformed by retirement, by the knowledge that he would never go on another expedition, and would never return to the acclaim he had become accustomed to. Perhaps he felt as Winston Churchill did on being voted out of office as Prime Minister after winning the war in Europe. There is a story, possibly apocryphal, that Churchill said “life is so boring without a war to fight.”

  Chapter Fourteen

  Our Names Would be Linked One More Time

  Italy–Svalbard–Arctic Ocean–Norway–Barents Sea June 18, 1928

  While Amundsen was writing his autobiography, Nobile returned to adulation in Italy. There were state banquets and flowers, parades and medals, and the promotion to General. In 1961, Nobile would write that he did not read the autobiography until after returning from the Arctic in 1928, although he must have heard of the unflattering comments which it contained.

  Mussolini had recognised the propaganda value of the flight of the Norge, and was receptive to Nobile’s next proposal. He wanted to build an improved airship based on the Norge and fly it to Svalbard, and from there make a series of flights to search for undiscovered lands and fill in the blanks that still existed in the maps of the Arctic. Nobile discussed it with Dr. Thommessen, President of the Norwegian Aero Club, and it was agreed that Nobile would have the right to use the mast and hangar at Kings Bay, and the mooring mast at Vadsø, for a period of three years. There was a delay as Mussolini instructed him to complete an airship several times the size of Norge for a non-stop flight from Rome to Buenos Aires in Argentina. This was canceled and the airshi
p broken up before completion while Nobile was in Japan supervising the assembly of an airship he had designed for the Japanese. He came into conflict with Italo Balbo. Balbo (1896–1940) was a fascist Black Shirt who had helped organise the March on Rome of 1922. In 1926, he began the build-up of the Royal Italian Air Force, and he had a great deal of power in the Fascist government, including over aviation matters. Nobile had asked that the big ship be completed for use in the Arctic, but Balbo squashed the idea and insisted on the scrapping of the partially completed airship.

  A plan evolved to explore the region of Severnaya Zemlya (Nicholas II Land), the northern coasts of Greenland, the Canadian Arctic, and the region of the North Pole. There was also to be an ambitious scientific program involving inter alia, the study of oceanography, terrestrial magnetism, and atmospheric electricity. Scientists were recruited to carry out this program. As on Amundsen’s expeditions, a scientific program was embarked upon to legitimise the flight and to help raise funds. Part of the plan was to land a number of scientists at the Pole and to retrieve them after they had completed their observations. This required the development of a system of cables, a winch, and baskets which would be used while Italia remained airborne.

  The Italian Royal Geographical Society and the City of Milan provided funding and support. Mussolini and Balbo agreed to Italia being used in the expedition. The airship had a lighter structural weight than Norge, and therefore had a greater useful lift to be used for passengers, crew, petrol, oil, and scientific equipment. Italia was completed and test flown in the summer of 1927, and the expedition planned for mid-1928. It was to be an almost all Italian expedition so there could be no doubt which country would garner the credit and prestige when it reached its successful conclusion. Nobile finalised a list of 18 men (including himself) and his dog, Titina, for the flights. Dr. Finn Malmgren, the Swedish meteorologist from the Norge flight, and Dr. Francis Behounek, a Czechoslovakian scientist, would be the only non-Italians aboard. Nobile arranged for some Alpini mountain troops to be at Kings Bay as part of the ground support in case a rescue from the ice was necessary. For the same reason he requested that some seaplanes be sent to Svalbard. Balbo vetoed Nobile’s request that one or two seaplanes be sent to Kings Bay with the Citta de Milano, which was the support ship.

  Citta de Milano and Hobby departed for Svalbard in March 1928. On March 31, the crew were received by Pope Pius XI, who entrusted a large wooden cross to Nobile and asked that it be left at the Pole. Italia positioned to Milan and departed from there at 01:55 on April 15, with 20 people aboard, for Stolp (now Słupsk, Poland) in Germany. Italia went by way of Vienna and Wrocław, through some very rough weather, and arrived after a flight of about 1050 nm in 29 hrs. 55 min. Hail had eroded all three propellers, and two of the fins were damaged. Materials and mechanics were railed from Italy, and 10 days were spent waiting as some of the damaged components were repaired and reinforced.

  On May 2, at 03:28 Italia departed for Vadsø. At 11:30 that day, Italia was over Stockholm with an escort of aeroplanes from the Swedish Navy. Finn Malmgren recognised his house. Italia descended, and Malmgren dropped a letter to his mother. The airship was moored to the mast at Vadsø. 29 hours 52 minutes after leaving Stolp, after a flight through some more bad weather.

  Refueling and gassing up was completed in a few hours, but bad weather delayed the start. Italia swung port and starboard at the mast, while gusts of up to 35 kt. caused damage to metal tubing at the tip of the stern, which was repaired. After a long wait, and rain which saturated the inside of the control car, Italia departed for Kings Bay at 08:34 on May 5, arriving at Kings Bay after flying over the weather station on Bear Island. On the flight they encountered strong winds and some snow storms, while an engine failure meant that only two engines were available. At 12:45 on May 6, 1928 the landing ropes were dropped at Kings Bay. The landing was made in gusty winds, meaning they had to moor to the mast until the weather permitted Italia to be walked into the shed. It had taken Italia from April 15–May 6, and 75 hrs. 58 min. flying time to fly from Italy to Svalbard. Nobile had been aboard Italia continuously since leaving Stolp, and had not left the airship for 82 hours when he disembarked in the Kings Bay hangar.

  It took four days for the material aboard Citta de Milano to be dragged over the snow to the hangar, and for the airship to be repaired and for petrol, oil, gas, and supplies to be loaded on it. The scientific equipment was checked, and the weather map studied before the first flight.

  Italia took off for its first flight of exploration at 07:55 on May 11. With 14 men aboard, it turned north at Cape Mitre and coasted along Haakon VII Land. A worn wire cable in the rudder circuit was repaired in flight. They turned east at Barren Cape and headed for Moffen Island. Shortly after, the turn the weather deteriorated, and a violent gale came up with cloud and snow. Ice formed all over Italia, with snow sticking to the fabric walls of the control car, and the airship pitching and rolling in the turbulence. Nobile received reports of deteriorating weather all along the intended route, and decided to turn back. Italia was soon back in the hangar after a flight of eight hours.

  At 13:15 on May 15, Italia again took off with 14 aboard for a flight to Severnaya Zemlya. Severnaya Zemlya was of particular interest because only the east coast had been explored, and a flight up the west coast would put its major features on the map. The route was north up the west coast of Spitsbergen, northeast along the northern coasts of North East Land and the islands of Franz Josef Land, and then southeast towards Severnaya Zemlya.

  Cloud came down, and ice formed on the control car, keel and, envelope. The icing was serious and the airship became heavy. Nobile descended under the cloud and the ice stopped forming. Ice had formed on the propeller that drove the dynamo to charge the radio batteries. Ice was thrown from it and hit the control car with a noise like a pistol shot. They sighted an island in the Franz Josef Land group, and coasted along the other islands in the group in poor visibility. Course was altered to the southeast to head for the west coast of Severnaya Zemlya.

  They had been airborne for 34 hours, and the only life seen so far was some black birds and a single bear. The journey had lasted 10 hours longer than expected, and had eaten into the reserve of petrol, so Nobile changed course to the southwest before reaching Severnaya Zemlya, and headed for Cape Zelantya on the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya. Italia turned south at the Cape, and followed the coast to Cape Nassau, then northwest to North East Land and back to Kings Bay. They landed at 09:15 on May 18; having been in the air for 69 hours, they disproved the existence of Giles Land (which had been on the charts since 1707), and made the first crossing of North East Land, proving that it was not thickly covered in ice, as had been believed. They had covered about 2,080 nm and explored 44,700 km2 of previously unknown territory.

  On May 23, 1928, at 12:30, Italia took off with 16 men aboard on a flight that would take it to Cape Bridgman on the northeast tip of Greenland, the North Pole, and southeast to North East Land in the Svalbard archipelago. At 00:24 they arrived at the Pole by way of Cape Bridgman after a flight of 19 hours. The plan was to lower several scientists on to the ice to make observations. A winch, an inflatable raft, and survival packs had been prepared for this purpose, but windy conditions prevented it being carried out. The fact that the food, survival equipment, and radio remained in the control cabin would save the lives of eight of the crew. They circled the area for several hours, making observations and dropping the cross, the Italian and Milanese flags, and a religious medal (the Virgin of the Fire) from the citizens of Forli. For six Italians and one Swede it was the second time they had been to the Pole. With engines throttled back they could all hear The Bells of San Giusto playing on a gramophone, causing pangs of home sickness to some. After a cry of “long live Nobile” from Zappi, they set course for Cape Platen on North East Land. It was 02:20 on May 24. For 24 hours they flew along, sometimes under a clear sky and sometimes under an overcast one. In the afternoon and evening, ice formed all over t
he airship, and ice flung from the propellers struck the envelope with sharp cracks causing rents that had to be found and repaired. There was a strong headwind, and for eight hours in the middle of the day their groundspeed was only 32 kt. Nobile conferred with Malmgren, who recommended increasing the airspeed to get out of the zone of strong headwinds as soon as possible. Nobile accepted the advice, and ordered the third engine started. They were under an overcast sky and so could not take a sun-sight. The radio aboard Citta de Milano gave them a bearing that gave a position line on the chart, but did not tell them where they were on that line. Nobile ordered a change of course to the west for an hour so that a second bearing from Kings Bay would intersect with the first. That gave an approximate position of about 80 nm north of Cape Platen on North East Land, although it was a low grade position because lines cut at a shallow angle.