Napoleon

by Andrew Roberts

  61. Golden spice cellars in the form of a ship, called nefs, indicated the presence of a sovereign. This one was made by Henry Auguste for Napoleon’s coronation in 1804, with the lid featuring his personal emblem of bees. Other symbols represented were of Fame, Justice and Prudence, the rivers Seine and Marne, Egypt (palm trees), France (cockerels), Victory (laurel leaves), the crown of Charlemagne and the 12 arrondissements of Paris.

  62. The Vendôme Column, built between 1803 and 1810, carried a statue of Napoleon on its apex and praised ‘Napoleon the Great’ at its base. It was pulled down in the Communard uprising in 1870.

  63. The Palais Brongniart exemplifies Napoleon’s love of classical architecture and for nearly two hundred years housed the Paris Bourse.

  64. Claude-François Méneval was Napoleon’s devoted secretary from 1803 to 1813.

  65. Baron Agathon Fain took over from Méneval and was equally admiring of his master. Both Méneval and Fain provide intimate portraits of the Emperor at work.

  66. Francisco Goya’s depictions of ‘The Disasters of War’ in the Peninsular campaign, where guerilla warfare was invented and which saw horrific brutality on both sides.

  67. Napoleon at bivouac the night between the first and second days of the battle of Wagram in July 1809. Marshal Berthier is busy at the table behind the fire; Napoleon’s bodyguard, the Mamluk Roustam, is lying in the foreground.

  68. The interview between Emperor Francis II of Austria (left), Prince Johann of Liechtenstein (centre) and Napoleon after the battle of Austerlitz in 1805. Five years later Francis was to become Napoleon’s father-in-law.

  69. Prince Clemens von Metternich, Austrian ambassador to France, foreign minister and eventually Chancellor, a subtle diplomat who timed Austria’s final move against Napoleon to perfection.

  70. Prince Karl von Schwarzenberg, whose careful manoeuvring of far larger forces was critical to Napoleon’s defeat in 1813.

  71. The Empress Marie Louise, painted by François Gérard in the year she became Napoleon’s second wife; she was 18 and he was 40 but the marriage began very successfully.

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  72. Napoleon doted on the son he had with Marie Louise, the King of Rome (later the Duke of Reichstadt). He died at the age of 21 of tuberculosis.

  73. The dashing one-eyed Austrian general Adam von Neipperg, whom Napoleon defeated on the battlefield in 1813 but who became Marie Louise’s lover after the Emperor’s first abdication the following year.

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  74. The uniforms of the Grande Armée were often magnificent, as depicted here by Carle Vernet in 1812, who helped design French flags and standards. It was dressed like this that Napoleon’s troops invaded Russia.

  75. No sooner did the French capture Moscow in September 1812 than the Russians set fire to it, burning down more than two-thirds of the city.

  76. Napoleon (on the left) warming himself during the retreat from Moscow. ‘The brilliant army that crossed the Niemen’, noted Faber du Faur, the painter of this picture, ‘would scarcely recognize itself now.’

  77. The crossing of the freezing Berezina on two trestle bridges in late November 1812, a miracle of deliverance for Napoleon’s army.

  78. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, four times foreign minister of France, was made a prince by Napoleon but plotted against him from 1807. Two years later the Emperor called him ‘a shit in a silk stocking’.

  79. Joseph Fouché, the police minister, served every regime from the Jacobins to the Bourbons and managed never to be on the losing side.

  80. Marshal Charles-Jean Bernadotte, whom Napoleon allowed to become Crown Prince of Sweden, turned on him once the Grande Armée was fatally weakened in 1812.

  81. Auguste de Marmont, Napoleon’s oldest friend and whom he raised to the marshalate, betrayed him by surrendering Paris to the Allies in March 1814.

  82. One of the most emotional moments in the Napoleonic epic came when the Emperor bid adieux to the Old Guard at Fontainebleau Palace before going into exile on Elba in April 1814.

  83. Napoleon fleeing the battlefield of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, as depicted by the British caricaturist George Cruickshank.

  84. Longwood House on St Helena, where Napoleon (in the doorway) lived for five and a half years and where he died.

  85. The obese, balding Napoleon on St Helena.

  86. The dead Napoleon on his iron campaign bed in the drawing room at Longwood, sketched by a Royal Navy captain.

  Notes

  1. CORSICA

  Napoleon on The Templars is from Bausset, Private Memoirs p. 41 Napoleon to Caulaincourt is from Dwyer, Napoleon p. 45 1. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 37 2. Chuquet, Jeunesse I p. 42, Browning, Napoleon p. 22, Davies, Vanished Kingdoms p. 500 3. ed. Metternich, Memoirs I p. 277 4. Parker, ‘Why did Napoleon’ p. 142 5. Buhl MSS 110 Box 1 fol. 2 p. 4 6. ed. Wilson, Diary p. 46 7. Dwyer, Napoleon p. 24, Englund, Napoleon p. 8 8. Bonaparte, Joseph, Mémoires et correspondance X p. 25 9. Carrington, Napoleon and his Parents pp. 29–31, Englund, Napoleon, p. 10 10. Chuquet, Jeunesse I p. 44 11. Decaux, Napoleon’s Mother p. xii 12. Englund, Napoleon p. 10 13. Englund, Napoleon p. 10 14. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 33 15. Markham, ‘The Emperor at Work’ p. 59 16. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 33 17. Sudhir Hazareesingh in TLS 12/2/2005 p. 11 18. Burdon, The Life p. 6 19. Williams, A Narrative p. 168 20. ed. Jones, Intimate Account p. 425 21. Chaptal, Souvenirs pp. 173–4 22. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction p. x, Healey, Literary Culture p. 20 n. 37 23. Bonaparte, Joseph, Mémoires et correspondance X p. 26 24. Zarzeczny, Meteors, p. 45 25. Ross, ‘Napoleon and Manouver Warfare’ p. 1 26. Gillian Tindall in TLS 24/9/1999 p. 34, Sudhir Hazareesingh in TLS 20/2/2004 p. 9 27. Buhl MSS 110 Box 2 fol. 7 p. 11 28. Forrest, Napoleon p. 25 29. Markham, Napoleon p. 3, Rose, Napoleon p. 5, Dwyer, Napoleon, p. 25, Englund, Napoleon p. 15, Dwyer, ‘From Corsican Nationalist’ p. 136 30. Bourgoing, Quelques notices p. 1 31. Rapp, Memoirs p. 55 32. Coston, Biographie p. 20 33. Assier, Napoleon I p. 44 34. Kiley, Artillery p. 29 35. ed. Haythornthwaite, Final Verdict p. 240 36. Biagi, ‘A Coincidence’ pp. 19, 154–5 37. Dwyer, Napoleon, p. 28 38. Nasica, Mémoires p. 12 39. ed. Sanderson, Bourrienne’s Memoirs p. 5 40. Rose, Napoleon I p. 11 41. Healey, Literary Culture of Napoleon p. 21 42. Hicks, ‘The Napoleonic “Police”’, Englund, Napoleon p. 31 43. ed. Gaskill, The Reception of Ossian p. xxvii 44. Levy, Napoléon intime p. 14, McLynn, Napoleon p. 21 45. Barral, Histoire des Sciences p. 7 46. Levy, Napoléon intime p. 8 47. ed. Sanderson, Bourrienne’s Memoirs p. 4 48. Hicks, ‘Late 18th Century’ passim 49. Baring-Gould, Napoleon p. 17, Rose, Napoleon I p. 12 50. ed. Sanderson, Bourrienne’s Memoirs p. 4 51. CG1 no. 1 p. 43, June 24, 1784 52. Robb, Parisians p. 13 53. Forrest, Napoleon p. 34 54. AN AII. 1891 p. 51 55. TLS 30/12/1939 p. 754 56. ed. Méneval, Memoirs I p. 107 57. Bonaparte, Joseph, Mémoires et correspondance X p. 29 58. CG1 no. 5 p. 47, March 28, 1745 59. Levy, Napoléon intime p. 17 60. Bonaparte, A Reply p. 14 61. Englund, Napoleon p. 24 62. Boswell, Account of Corsica p. 77 63. CG1 no. 21 p. 65, August 29, 1788 64. NYPL MSS Coll 4854, Englund, Napoleon p. 25 65. Smith, Napoleon’s Regiments p. 294 66. Chaptal, Souvenirs p. 184 67. Holland, Foreign Reminiscences pp. 211–12 68. Healey, Literary Culture of Napoleon Appendix A 69. ed. Castle, Stanley Kubrick’s Napoleon p. 164 70. Levy, Napoléon intime p. 23 71. Rose, Napoleon I p. 19 72. Dwyer, ‘From Corsican Nationalist’ p. 134 73. Bodleian MS Curzon e1. p. 16 74. Plumptre, A Narrative p. 260 75. Browning, Napoleon p. 283, ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie pp. 42, 63 76. Browning, Napoleon pp. 283–4 77. Forrest, Napoleon p. 24 78. Rose, Napoleon I p. 20, Englund, Napoleon p. 31 79. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction p. 31 80. Browning, Napoleon pp. 285–8, ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie pp. 42–3 81. Browning, Napoleon pp. 285–8 82. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction p. 25 83. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction pp. 36–7 84. Ibid. 85. CG1 no. 11 p. 54, April 21, 1787 86. Dwyer, Napoleon p. 47 87. Kiley, Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars p. 26 88. Kiley, Artillery of
the Napoleonic Wars p. 29 89. ed. Johnston, The Corsican p. 143 90. eds. Masson and Biagi, Napoléon inconnu II p. 53 91. Englund, Napoleon p. 31 92. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction p. 61 93. ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie pp. 44–5 94. Chaptal, Souvenirs p. 308 95. CG1 no. 31 p. 78, July 22, 1789 96. CG1 no. 29 p. 76, June 12, 1789

  2. REVOLUTION

  Metternich on Napoleon is from ed. Metternich, Memoirs I p. 281 Napoleon to the Elector Frederick is from ed. North, Napoleon on Elba pp. 153–4 1. CG1 no. 31 p. 78, July 22, 1789 2. Pelet, Napoleon in Council p. 21 3. Simonetta and Arikha, Napoleon and the Rebel p. 10, Collins, Napoleon and His Parliaments p. 7 4. Rose, Napoleon I pp. 28–9, Forrest, Napoleon p. 45 5. Thrasher, Paoli p. 197 6. Masson and Biagi, Napoléon inconnu II pp. 79–83, Dwyer, ‘From Corsican Nationalist’ pp. 141–2 7. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction p. 71 8. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction p. 73 9. CG1 no. 39 p. 86, June 24, 1790 10. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 11 11. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 21. The pamphlet itself has not survived. 12. Bonaparte, Joseph, Mémoires et correspondence I p. 44 13. Pierpont Morgan Library MA 6942 14. Dwyer, ‘From Corsican Nationalist’ p. 147 15. Masson and Biagi, Napoléon inconnu II p. 128 16. Rose, Napoleon I p. 32 17. Dwyer, ‘From Corsican Nationalist’ p. 148 18. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 22 19. Rose, Napoleon I p. 33 20. Dwyer, ‘From Corsican Nationalist’ p. 139 21. ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie p. 45 22. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction p. ix 23. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 42 24. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 24 25. CG1 no. 67 p. 115, July 25, 1792 26. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 24 27. Richardson, Dictionary p. 469 28. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 28 29. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 27 30. ed. Sanderson, Bourrienne’s Memoirs p. 8 31. CG1 no. 65 p. 113, June 22, 1792 32. Robb, Parisians p. 435 33. Orieux, Talleyrand p. 224 34. ed. Latimer, Talks pp 46–7 35. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 47 36. ed. Bingham, Selection II p. 29, Thibaudeau, Mémoires p. 59 37. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 38 38. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 38 39. Chaptal, Souvenirs pp. 185–6 40. ed. Wilson, Diary pp. 137–8 41. CG1 no. 75 p. 121, January 12, 1793 42. Pellew, Life of Lord Sidmouth I p. 72 43. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder p. 345 44. Thrasher, Paoli p. 255 45. CG1 no. 77 p. 122, March 2, 1793 46. Musée National de la Maison Bonaparte 47. Dwyer, ‘From Corsican Nationalist’ p. 148, ed. Latimer, Talks p. 38 48. Dwyer, ‘From Corsican Nationalist’ p. 149 49. Paoli, La Jeunesse de Napoléon p. 9 50. Foladare, Boswell’s Paoli p. 225 51. Bodleian MS Curzon e.1. p. 23 52. ed. Frayling, Napoleon Wrote Fiction p. 128, Masson and Biagi, Napoléon inconnu II pp. 477–97 53. Pelet, Napoleon in Council p. 22 54. Bodleian MS Curzon e1. p. 16, ed. Wilson, Diary p. 87 55. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 32 56. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 43, ed. North, Napoleon on Elba pp. 53–4 57. CG1 no. 111 p. 142, November 14, 1793 58. CG1 no. 95 p. 132, October 1793 59. CG1 no. 96 p. 133, October 16, 1793 60. CG1 no. 102 p. 137, October 2, 1793 61. Rose, Napoleon I p. 49 62. Rose, Napoleon I p. 52 63. Friedman, The Emperor’s Itch p. 33 64. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 43 65. Friedman, The Emperor’s Itch pp. 22–3 66. Las Cases, Journal I pt 2 p. 67, O’Meara, Napoleon at St Helena I pp. 198–9, 229 67. CN32 p. 82 68. Williams, A Narrative p. 180 69. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 35 70. Crook, Toulon in War and Revolution p. 145 71. Bonaparte, A Reply p. 10 72. ed. North, Napoleon on Elba p. 152 73. Emsley, Napoleon p. 9

  3. DESIRE

  Napoleon to O’Meara is from O’Meara, Napoleon in Exile I p. 203 Napoleon to Bausset is from Bausset, Private Memoirs p. 259 1. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 36, Fraser, Napoleon’s Cursed War p. 23 2. CG1 nos. 163, 172, 191 p. 171, April 4, 1794, p. 174, May 7, 1794, p. 182, June 10, 1794 3. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 36 4. Lavalette, Memoirs p. 9 5. CG1 no. 232 p. 196, August 7, 1794 6. Bonaparte, A Reply p. 18 7. eds. Tulard and Garros, Itinéraire p. 60 8. CG1 no. 139 p. 159, January 4, 1794 9. CG1 no. 235 p. 197August 12 or 19, 1794 10. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 41 11. CG1 no. 244 p. 201, September 10, 1794 12. CG1 no. 283 p. 218, February 4, 1795 13. CG1 no. 285 p. 219, February 12, 1795 14. CG1 no. 290 p. 221, April 11, 1795 15. Mars & Clio Autumn 2010 p. 21 16. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 44 17. Branda, Napoléon et ses hommes p. 9 18. Bonaparte, A Reply p. 19 19. CG1 no. 322 p. 248, August 10, 1795 20. Horne, Age of Napoleon p. 16 21. ed. Méneval, Memoirs I p. 104n 22. Englund, Napoleon p. 76 23. D’Abrantès, At the Court p. 34 24. Las Cases, Le Mémorial I p. 401 25. CG1 no. 297 p. 224, May 9, 1795 26. CG1 no. 298 p. 224, May 22, 1795 27. CG1 no. 301 p. 227June 4, 1795 28. CG1 no. 303 pp. 228–9, June 14, 1795 29. CG1 no. 321 p. 247, August 10, 1795 30. CG1 no. 309 p. 233, July 6, 1795 31. CG1 no. 310 p. 235, July 12, 1795 32. Bertrand, Cahiers II p. 218, Las Cases, Le Mémorial I p. 284 33. CG1 no. 309 p. 233, July 6, 1795 34. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 55 35. CG1 no. 327 p. 252, August 20, 1795 36. Brown, War, Revolution p. 128 37. ed. Handel, Leaders and Intelligence p. 42 38. CG1 no. 345 p. 268, between September 15 and October 5, 1795 39. ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie p. 13 40. ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie p. 15 41. ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie pp. 2–21 42. ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie pp. 2–21 43. ed. Hicks, Clisson and Eugénie p. 67 44. CG1 no. 334 p. 258, September 1, 1795 45. Dumas, Memoirs II p. 40 46. Healey, Literary Culture p. 79 47. Bonaparte, A Reply p. 20 48. Lavalette, Memoirs p. 12 49. ed. Lecestre, Lettres Inédites II p. 133 50. CN2 no. 485 p. 15 51. Arnault, Memoirs I p. 35, Lavalette, Memoirs pp. 12–13 52. Sarrazin, Confession p. 13 53. Annual Register 1795 no. 37 p. 106 54. Gibbs, Military Career p. 42 55. D’Abrantès, At the Court p. 37 56. Christies Rare Books catalogue 27/11/2012 p. 14 57. Memes, Memoirs p. 13 58. Horne, Age of Napoleon p. 45 59. D’Abrantès, At the Court p. 237 60. Haig, Napoleon and Josephine’s Paris p. 50 61. Haig, Napoleon and Josephine’s Paris p. 49. 62. Philip Mansel in TLS 16/1/2004 p. 23 63. Stuart, Rose of Martinique p. 277 64. Stuart, Rose of Martinique p. 206 65. ed. Méneval, Memoirs I p. 123, Bruce, Napoleon and Josephine p. 74 66. ed. Duruy, Memoirs of Barras II p. 72 67. ed. Metternich, Memoirs I p. 281 68. Thody, French Caesarism p. 35 69. Chuquet, Jeunesse I p. 65, Rose, Napoleon I p. 3 70. ed. Hanoteau, Memoirs of Queen Hortense I p. 326 n. 3 71. ed. Latimer, Talks p. 138 72. Bruce, Napoleon and Josephine p. 162 73. ed. Duruy, Memoirs of Barras II p. 79 74. Pratt, ‘Vignettes’ p. 59 75. Chuquet, Jeunesse I p. 41, Davies, Vanished Kingdoms p. 501 76. Dubroca, Life of Bonaparte p. 94, Poultier, History of the War p. 260

  4. ITALY

  Stendhal, The Charterhouse of Parma (1839) Napoleon to Chaptal is from Chaptal, Souvenirs p. 296 1. Pratt, ‘Vignettes’ p. 60 2. Boycott-Brown, Road to Rivoli p. 412 3. Chaptal, Souvenirs p. 204, ed. Haythornthwaite, Final Verdict pp. 290–92 4. Baldet, La vie quotidienne p. 33 5. Starke, Letters from Italy I p. 60 6. ed. Chandler, Military Maxims pp. 135, 205 7. Holland, Foreign Reminiscences pp. 217–19 8. CG1 no. 426 p. 304, March 28, 1796 9. ed. Hanoteau, Napoleon in Russia p. 367 10. CG1 no. 471 p. 328, April 8, 1796 11. ed. Haythornthwaite, Final Verdict pp. 290–92 12. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 67 13. ed. Luvaas, Art of War p. 10 14. Gray, Words of Napoleon p. xii 15. TLS 12/5/1927 p. 325, Hazareesingh in TLS 3/2/2012 p. 4 16. AN 192AP/2, SHD GR6.YD/1 17. CG4 no. 8847 p. 694, April 28, 1804 18. CG1 no. 463 p. 324, April 6, 1796 19. ed. Chandler, Military Maxims p. 146 20. ed. Cerf, Letters to Josephine p. 32 21. ed. Cerf, Letters to Josephine p. 34, CG1 nos. 464, 467 p. 325, April 6, 1796, p. 326, April 7, 1796 22. CG7 no. 14120 p. 111, January 19, 1807 23. ed. Cerf, Letters to Josephine p. 73, Stuart, Rose of Martinique p. 206, CG3 no. 5277 p. 230, May 11, 1800, GC1 no. 1068 p. 672, November 21, 1796 24. ed. Cerf, Letters to Josephine pp. 25–6, Pierpont Morgan Library MA 6936 and passim 25. CG1 no. 463 p. 324 26. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 70 27. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 74 28. eds. Dwyer and McPhee, French Revolution and Napoleon pp. 128–9, ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 74 29. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 72 30. ed. Bingham, Selection I pp. 71–2 31. Foy, History I p. 43 32. ed. Chandler, Military Maxims p. 111 33. Blaze, Life in Napoleon’s Army pp. 42–3 34. Blaze, Life in Napoleon’s Army p. 145 35. Rose, Napoleon I p. 88 36. ed. Yonge, Man of Other Days II p. 112ff 37. ed. Yonge, Man of Other Days II p. 122 38. ed. Yonge, Man of Other Days II pp. 126–7 39. CG1 no. 545 p. 370, April 20, 1796 4
0. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration p. 252 41. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 76 42. CG1 no. 557 p. 377, May 1, 1796 43. Edinburgh Review no. XLVI September 1814 p. 470 44. Plumptre, A Narrative III p. 352 45. ed. Bingham, Selection III p. 55 46. CG1 no. 573 p. 384, May 6, 1796 47. CG1 no. 582 p. 389, May 9, 1796 48. CG1 nos. 609–11, pp. 406–7, May 18, 1796 49. Higgonet, Paris p. 136 50. ed. Chandler, Military Maxims p. 203 51. Tulard, Napoléon: les grands moments p. 97 52. Cockburn, Buonaparte’s Voyage p. 114, Branda, Napoléon et ses hommes p. 10 53. CG1 no. 589 p. 393 and CG1 no. 588 p. 392, May 11, 1796 54. ed. Cerf, Letters to Josephine pp. 37–40 55. CG1 no. 595 pp. 396–7, May 13, 1796 56. Bruce, Napoleon and Josephine p. 174 57. Dwyer, Napoleon p. 243 58. CG1 no. 596 p. 397, May 14, 1796 59. CG1 no. 597 p. 398, May 14, 1796 60. CG1 no. 599 p. 399, May 14, 1796 61. ed. Tarbell, Napoleon’s Addresses pp. 34–5 62. ed. Duruy, Memoirs of Barras II p. 153 63. Gaffarel, Bonaparte et les républiques italiennes p. 5 64. CG1 no. 1880, p. 1107, August 6, 1797 65. ed. Bingham, Selection I pp. 82, 85 66. Broers, Napoleonic Empire in Italy p. 31 67. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration p. 9 68. Woloch, Jacobin Legacy p. 70 69. CG1 no. 627 p. 415, May 24, 1796 70. ed. Tarbell, Napoleon’s Addresses pp. 36–7 71. ed. Tarbell, Napoleon’s Addresses pp. 37–8 72. CG1 no. 639 p. 421, June 1, 1796 73. CG1 no. 629 p. 416, May 25, 1796 74. CG1 no. 629 p. 416, May 25, 1796, Chrisawn, Emperor’s Friend p. 22 75. ed. Haythornthwaite Final Verdict pp. 240–41 76. Pigeard, L'Armée p. 182 77. CG1 no. 639, p. 421, June 1, 1796 78. CG6 no. 11392 pp. 86–7, February 4, 1806 79. CN6 no. 478 p. 73 80. CG1 no. 625, p. 414, May 25, 1796 81. ed. Cerf, Letters to Josephine p. 43 82. CG1 no. 642, p. 424, June 1, 1796 83. ed. Fleischmann, Memoirs p. 51 84. Branda, Napoléon et ses hommes p. 11 85. ed. Bingham, Selection I p. 95 86. ed. Cerf, Letters to Josephine pp. 47–9 87. CG1 no. 672 p. 441, June 11, 1796 88. CG1 no. 677 p. 443, June 11, 1796, ed. Cerf, Letters to Josephine pp. 46–7 89. TLS 24/11/2006 p. 14 90. CG1 no. 693 p. 451, June 15, 1796 91. Quarterly Review 1833 pp. 179–84 92. ed. Haythornthwaite, Final Verdict p. 224 93. Summerville, Ségur p. 119