Ultralearning
Page 26
14. “Following a number”: Ibid., 16.
15. “We should make”: Ibid., 51.
16. “One thing is certain”: Ibid.
17. “one of the most important”: Ibid., 36.
18. “opening preparation was not”: Judit Polgár, How I Beat Fischer’s Record (Glasgow: Quality Chess UK Ltd, 2012), 11.
Index
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Adams, Scott, 211
American Revolution, 107
analytics, 10–11
Anki, 165–66
arousal, task complexity and, 83–85
artistic skills, intensive practice of, x–xi, xii, 19–20
Atomic Habits (Clear), xiii
Autobiography (Franklin), 107–8, 118
Autor, David, 28
Barone, Eric, 12–15, 21, 23, 33, 91, 93, 117, 118, 139, 142
benchmarks, benchmarking, 64–65, 218
Bishop, Errett, 177
Bjork, R. A., 125
Blunt, Janell, 122–23, 132
Bohr, Niels, 178
Brookhart, Susan M., 144
careers, ultralearning and:
acceleration of, 32
changing of, 32, 45–46
and cultivation of hidden advantages, 32, 33
Carr, George Shoobridge, 121, 123, 133
challenges, self-generated, 132
chess:
pattern recognition in, 182–83
Polgár sisters and, 233–49
sexism in, 234, 237–38
Chi, Michelene, 95
children:
and pressure to achieve, 241–42
ultralearning and, 241–49
Cirillo, Francesco, 76n
cognitive components, in drills, 115
cognitive load, drill and, 110–11, 116
cognitive science, 23, 49
college degrees:
cost vs. practical value of, 5, 29–30, 59; see also education, traditional
Comedy Cellar, 136
competition, self-confidence and, 244, 251–53
concept mapping, 122–23, 124, 132–33
concepts, in metalearning, 62
copying, in drills, 115–16
corrective feedback, 141, 144–45
Cowen, Tyler, 27–28
Craig, Roger, 9–12, 21, 23, 33, 91, 93, 99–100, 137, 163, 164, 165, 229, 251
Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály, 78
cycling, 156–57
Dalí, Salvador, 197–98
Davy, Humphrey, 107
Declaration of Independence, 107
Deep Blue chess computer, 234
deliberate practice, 78, 109, 137–38
de Montebello, Tristan, 40–47, 104, 137, 142, 143, 144–45, 146, 151, 251, 252
DeNisi, Angelo, 138–39
difficulty, desirable, 215–16
directness (ultralearning principle), xi, xiii, 48, 87–105, 222, 246
contextual emphasis of, 90, 91, 97–99
difficulty of, 101
drill and, 111–13
feedback and, 144
immersive approach in, 102–3
indirect learning vs., 91, 105
overkill approach to, 104–5, 171
project-based learning and, 101–2
retrieval and, 128–29
simulation in, 103
skill sets and, 88–90
transfer and, 97–101
direct practice, xi, 157, 218
Direct-Then-Drill Approach, 112–13, 114
distractions, 77
and choice of learning tools, 81–82
environment and, 80–81
mental, 82–83
drill (ultralearning principle), xiii, 48, 106–18, 223, 246–47
cognitive components in, 115
cognitive load and, 110–11, 116
copying in, 115–16
directness and, 111–13
effective, difficulty of designing, 113–14
Magnifying Glass Method in, 116
prerequisite chaining in, 116–17
rate-determining steps and, 110–11
time slicing in, 114–15
in ultralearning vs. traditional learning, 117–18
Dunning-Kruger effect, 190
Duolingo, 91–92, 165
Durant, Colby, 32
Dweck, Carol, 207
Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 159–60
“Edict by the King of Russia, An” (Franklin), 107
Edison, Thomas, 197
education, traditional:
failure of transfer in, 94–97
indirect learning in, 97
practical skills downplayed in, 87–88, 90, 91, 93–94
value of, 231–32; see also college degrees
effectiveness, prioritizing of, 17, 26, 29, 36, 37–39, 48, 49
efficiency, maximizing of, 10, 11, 32, 38, 39, 49, 127–28
Einstein, Albert, 72, 186–87
emotions, as source of distraction, 82–83
Emphasize/Exclude Method, 65–66
entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship, xii–xiii
Erdős, Paul, 72
Ericsson, K. Anders, 36, 78, 137, 147, 183n
Euler, Leonhard, 70
“Eureka!” moments, 84
Everett, Dan, 51–55, 101
experimentation (ultralearning principle), 49, 197–215, 223, 248–49
combining skills in, 211
comparing methods in, 209–10
copying in, 208–9
extremes and, 211–12
introducing new constraints in, 210–11
learning resources and, 204–5
mastery and, 203–4
mindset and, 207–8, 213–14
with style, 206
tactics for, 208–12
with techniques, 205–6
uncertainty and, 213–15
facts, in metalearning, 62
Farkas, Endre, 240
Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE) (World Chess Federation), 233
feedback (ultralearning principle), xiii, 48, 135–52, 223, 247
corrective, 141, 144–45
difficulty of task and, 149
fear of, 140, 151
filtering and, 148–49
high-intensity, 150–51, 152
immediate vs. delayed, 146–47
informational, 141, 143–44
meta-, 150
outcome, 141–43
positive vs. negative impact of, 138–40
retrieval and, 147
self-provided, 143–44
self-testing and, 123
signal vs. noise in, 148–49, 152
underuse of, 140
Fehsenfeld, Diana, 33
Felt, Bob, 155
Feynman, Richard, 177–81, 193–94, 195–96
Feynman Technique, 191–95
filtering, feedback and, 148–49
Fischer, Bobby, 233, 235
five-minute rule, 75–76, 77
flash cards, 130, 166
flow, 78–79
focus (ultralearning principle), xiii, 48, 70–86, 222, 246
arousal vs. task complexity in, 83–85
failing to sustain, 77–83; see also distractions
optimal length of, 79–80
procrastinating and, see procrastinating
schedules and, 76–77
Foer, Joshua, 174
fooling oneself, understanding and, 187–88, 190–91, 192
forgetting, 159–63, 175–76
see also retention
formal discipline theory, 95–96
forward-testing effect, 126–27
Fowler, Trent, 22
Franklin, Benjamin, 106–9, 111, 114, 115, 118
free (active) recall, 121–23, 125, 131, 157, 166, 176
games (video), 12–15
Gauguin, Paul, 201, 206
general theory of relativity, 72
genes, intelligence and, 36
genius, 34–35, 177, 179
genetics and, 240
L. Polgár's theory of, 236, 239–40
Gleick, James, 179
globalization, 28
Graham, Paul, xiv
habits, low-intensity, learning and, 229–31
Hardy, G. H., 119–20, 121
Harvest Moon (video game), 12
Haskell, Robert, 94, 96–97, 100
Herschel, Caroline, 71
humility, learning and, 256
Hungarian Chess Federation, 237
hyperpolyglots, 9
illusion of explanatory depth, 187–88, 192
income inequality, 28
“Influence of Improvement in One Mental Function upon the Efficiency of Other Functions, The” (Thorndike and Woodworth), 95–96
informational feedback, 141, 143–44
instrumental learning projects, 58
intelligence, genes and, 36
interference, retention and, 161–62
intrinsic learning projects, 58–59
intuition (ultralearning principle), 49, 177–96, 223, 248
demystifying of, 195–96
Feynman Technique for developing, 191–95
problem solving and, see problem solving
italki, 166
Jaiswal, Vatsal, 87–90, 93
James, William, 119
Jaunzeikare, Diana, 21–22
Jefferson, Thomas, 107
Jeopardy! (TV show), 9–12, 33, 91, 93, 99–100, 137, 163, 165, 229, 251
Johnston, Philip, 106
judgments of learning (JOLs), 124
Kac, Mark, 177
Karpicke, Jeffrey, 122–23, 124, 132
Kasparov, Garry:
initial sexism of, 234
J. Polgár's first match with, 234–35
J. Polgár's rematch with, 238–39
keyword mnemonic method, 173–74
Kluger, Avraham, 138–39
knowledge, unlimited expansion of, 256–57
Kulik, Chen-Lin C., 146–47
Kulik, James A., 146–47
language learning, 5–9, 209–10
immersive, ix, x, 51–53, 56, 91, 92, 102
metalearning and, 53–54, 55–56
procedural memory in, 169
Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 71, 72
Latin, study of, 96
Law of Diminishing Returns, 68
Lawson, Rebecca, 187–88
learning:
asking questions and, 190–91
coercive, 244
concept mapping and, 122–23, 124, 132–33
creating inspiring goals in, 250–51
by doing, xi, 92–93, 99; see also directness
free (active) recall and, 121–23, 131
humility and, 256
immersive, 17–19, 102–3; see also language learning, immersive
indirect approaches to, 91–92, 97, 101, 105
lifelong, 232
low-intensity habits for, 229–31
passive review and, 121–22, 124, 130
prioritizing of, 253–54
project-based, 101–2
rate-determining steps in, 109–11, 112, 113
research on, 254–57
retrieval and, see retrieval
role play in, 243–44
self-confidence and, xiv, 256
technology and, 5, 29–32
transfer and, see transfer
see also ultralearning, ultralearners
Lee, T. D., 186, 187
Leonardo da Vinci, 87, 197
levels-of-processing effect, 189–90
Lewis, Benny, 5–9, 17, 21, 33–34, 40, 91, 92, 104–5, 117, 125–26, 137, 151, 163, 229
lifelong learning, 232
Littlewood, John, 120
McKeachie, Wilbert, 96
Magnifying Glass Method, 116
Maini, Vishal, 32, 100
Mair, Victor, 66
Manhattan Project, 178
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), online course of, 1–5
mastery:
experimentation and, 203–4
ultralearners and, 100–101
mathematics, 1–2, 22, 63, 109
Feynman and, 177–78, 179, 180, 181
Ramanujan and, 119–21, 123
Somerville and, 71–73
Tao and, 34–36
Mauve, Anton, 201
Mednis, Edmar, 234
Meena, Rajveer, 173
memory, see retention
Memrise, 165
metafeedback, 150
metalearning (ultralearning principle), xiii, 48, 51–69, 203, 217, 222, 245–46
definition of, 53
expert interviews in, 59–60
“How?” questions in, 58, 64–65
long-term effects of, 57, 68–69
as mapmaking, 54–56
planning time in, 66–68
short-term strategies for, 56–69
“What?” questions in, 58, 61–64
“Why?” questions in, 57–61
metalinguistic awareness, 55
mindset:
experimentation and, 207–8
fixed vs. growth, 207, 213–14
MIT Challenge, x, 2–5, 15–16, 67, 92, 93, 144, 167, 169, 171, 250, 261–63
mnemonics, 172–75, 209–10, 214
monolingual fieldwork, 54
Moonwalking with Einstein: The Art and Science of Remembering Everything (Foer), 174
multitasking, 81
Naifeh, Steven, 199
Nemitrmansuk, Pakorn, 156
Newton, Isaac, 51
noise, signal vs., 148–49, 152
outcome feedback, 141–43
overlearning, 104–5, 170–72
pattern recognition, 182–83, 184
Pavlina, Steve, 21
photography, x–xi, xii
physics, 178, 180, 181, 182
Picasso, Pablo, 197
Pike, Kenneth, 54
Pimsleur, 165
pixel art, 13–14, 117
planning, allotting time for, 66–68
play, in learning, 243–44
Polgár, Judit, 233–49
chess as obsession of, 238
chess education of, 235–38
Kasparov's first match with, 234–35
Kasparov's rematch with, 238–39
Polgár, Klára, 236, 237
Polgár, László, 237, 242
coercive learning opposed by, 244
daughters' chess education as focus of, 236–37, 243
daughters' general education and, 237
educational strategy of, 242–49
genius as viewed by, 236, 239–40
play emphasized by, 243–44
positive reinforcement practiced by, 244
sexism opposed by, 237–38
ultralearning principles used by, 245–49
Polgár, Zsófia, 236, 238
chess education of, 237
Polgár, Zsuzsa, 236, 237, 238
chess education of, 237
Pomodoro Technique, 76, 77
Poor Richard’s Almanack (Franklin), 106, 108–9
Portrait Drawing Challenge, 265
positive reinforcement, 244
praise, negative impact of, 138–39
prerequisite chaining, 116–17
problem solving:
concrete examples in, 189–90
not giving up on, 185–86
pattern recognition in, 182–83, 184
principles-first approach to, 182, 183–84
proving and, 186–87
proceduralizations, 167–70
procedures, in metalearning, 62–63
processing, levels of, 189–90
procrastinating, 73–77
causes of, 74
self-recognition of, 74–75
tactics
for combating, 75–77
proving, developing understanding through, 186–88
public speaking, ultralearning and, 41–46
Putnam Mathematics Competition, 178
Pythagorean Theorem, 187
questions, importance of asking, 190–91
Raise a Genius! (Polgár), 240, 242
Ramanujan, Srinivasa, 119–21, 123, 133
Rappard, Anthon van, 201, 206
rate-determining steps, 109–11, 112, 113
drill and, 110–11
recall, free (active), 121–23, 125, 131, 157, 166, 176
Reddit, 16
reference groups, ultralearning and, 252–53
regionalization, 28–29
remembering, see retention; retrieval
research:
allotting time for, 66–68
for ultralearning projects, 217–19
resources, choosing, 218
retention (ultralearning principle), 48, 153–76, 223, 248
decay over time of, 160–61
difficulty of, 159–63
false memories and, 163
interference and, 161–62
lost cues and, 162–63
mechanisms for, 163–75
mnemonics and, 172–75
overlearning and, 170–72
proceduralization in, 167–70
spacing and, 164–65
retrieval (ultralearning principle), 48, 119–34, 223, 247–48
closed-book tactic in, 132–33
desirable difficulty in, 125–26
directness and, 128–29
feedback and, 147
flash cards and, 130
forward-testing effect in, 126–27
free (active) recall and, 121–22, 131, 157, 166, 176
maximizing efficiency in, 127–28
question-book technique in, 131–32
self-generated challenges in, 132
Revit, 89
Richards, Nigel, 153–59, 164, 166, 176
Rock, Chris, 135–36, 140, 143
Royal Astronomical Society, 71
Ruiz-Primo, Maria Araceli, 144
schedules, 76–77
Scrabble:
French-language version of, 153–54
rules and strategies of, 154–56
self-confidence:
competition and, 244, 251–53
learning and, xiv, 256
self-education:
directness and, 90
intense, see ultralearning, ultralearners
of van Gogh, 200–203, 204–5, 206
self-testing, 121–23
feedback and, 123
see also retrieval
Shelley, Mary, 216
Short, Nigel, 234
signal, noise vs., 148–49, 152
skill polarization, 28
skill sets, acquiring and upgrading of, 88–90
Smalley, Susan, 83
Smith, Gregory White, 199
Socratic method, 108
Somerville, Mary, 70–73, 77, 85, 86
spaced-repetition systems (SRS), 11, 165–66, 175
spacing, retention and, 164–65
Spectator, 107–8