Republic (Barnes & Noble Classics Series)

by Plato

  Yes, if I can, I will, I said.

  I shall particularly wish to hear what were the four constitutions of which you were speaking.

  That question, I said, is easily answered: the four governments of which I spoke, so far as they have distinct names, are first, those of Crete and Sparta, which are generally applauded;1 what is termed oligarchy comes next; this is not equally approved, and is a form of government which teems with evils: thirdly, democracy, which naturally follows oligarchy, although very different: and lastly comes tyranny, great and famous, which differs from them all, and is the fourth and worst disorder of a State. I do not know, do you? of any other constitution which can be said to have a distinct character. There are lordships and principalities which are bought and sold, and some other intermediate forms of government. But these are nondescripts and may be found equally among Hellenes and among barbarians.

  c

  d

  Yes, he replied, we certainly hear of many curious forms of government which exist among them.

  Do you know, I said, that governments vary as the dispositions of men vary, and that there must be as many of the one as there are of the other? For we cannot suppose that States are made of “oak and rock,”ge and not out of the human natures which are in them, and which in a figure turn the scale and draw other things after them?

  e

  Yes, he said, the States are as the men are; they grow out of human characters.

  Then if the constitutions of States are five, the dispositions of individual minds will also be five?

  Certainly.

  Him who answers to aristocracy, and whom we rightly call just and good, we have already described.

  We have.

  Then let us now proceed to describe the inferior sort of natures, being the contentious and ambitious, who answer to the Spartan polity; also the oligarchical, democratical, and tyrannical. Let us place the most just by the side of the most unjust, and when we see them we shall be able to compare the relative happiness or unhappiness of him who leads a life of pure justice or pure injustice. The inquiry will then be completed. And we shall know whether we ought to pursue injustice, as Thrasymachus advises,gf or in accordance with the conclusions of the argument to prefer justice.

  545

  b

  Certainly, he replied, we must do as you say.

  Shall we follow our old plan, which we adopted with a view to clearness, of taking the State first and then proceeding to the individual, and begin with the government of honor?—I know of no name for such a government other than timocracy or perhaps timarchy.gg We will compare with this the like character in the individual; and, after that, consider oligarchy and the oligarchical man; and then again we will turn our attention to democracy and the democratical man; and lastly, we will go and view the city of tyranny, and once more take a look into the tyrant’s soul, and try to arrive at a satisfactory decision.

  c

  That way of viewing and judging of the matter will be very suitable.

  First, then, I said, let us inquire how timocracy (the government of honor) arises out of aristocracy (the government of the best).gh Clearly, all political changes originate in divisions of the actual governing power; a government which is united, however small, cannot be moved.2

  d

  Very true, he said.

  In what way, then, will our city be moved, and in what manner will the two classes of auxiliaries and rulers disagree among themselves or with one another? Shall we, after the manner of Homer, pray the muses to tell us “how discord first arose”?gi Shall we imagine them in solemn mockery, to play and jest with us as if we were children, and to address us in a lofty tragic vein, making believe to be in earnest?3

  e

  How would they address us?

  After this manner: A city which is thus constituted can hardly be shaken; but, seeing that everything which has a beginning has also an end, even a constitution such as yours will not last forever, but will in time be dissolved. And this is the dissolution: In plants that grow in the earth, as well as in animals that move on the earth’s surface, fertility and sterility of soul and body occur when the circumferences of the circles of each are completed, which in short-lived existences pass over a short space, and in long-lived ones over a long space.4 But to the knowledge of human fecundity and sterility all the wisdom and education of your rulers will not attain; the laws which regulate them will not be discovered by an intelligence which is alloyed with sense, but will escape them, and they will bring children into the world when they ought not. Now that which is of divine birthgj has a period which is contained in a perfect number,gk but the period of human birth is comprehended in a number5 in which first increments by involution and evolution (or squared and cubed)gl obtaining three intervals and four termsgm of like and unlike, waxing and waning numbers,gn make all the terms commensurable and agreeable to one another. The base of these with a third added, when combined with five and raised to the third power, furnishes two harmonies,go the first a square which is 100 times as great,gp and the other a figure having one side equal to the former, but oblong, consisting of 100 numbers squared upon rational diameters of a square (i.e., omitting fractions), the side of which is five, each of them being less by onegq or less by two perfect squares of irrational diameters;gr and 100 cubes of three.gs Now this number represents a geometrical figure which has control over the good and evil of births.6 For when your guardians are ignorant of the law of births, and unite bride and bridegroom out of season, the children will not be goodly or fortunate. And though only the best of them will be appointed by their predecessor, still they will be unworthy to hold their father’s places, and when they come into power as guardians they will soon be found to fail in taking care of us, the muses, first by undervaluing music;gt which neglect will soon extend to gymnastics; and hence the young men of your State will be less cultivated. In the succeeding generation rulers will be appointed who have lost the guardian power of testing the metal of your different races, which, like Hesiod‘s, are of gold and silver and brass and iron.gu And so iron will be mingled with silver, and brass with gold, and hence there will arise dissimilarity and inequality and irregularity, which always and in all places are causes of hatred and war. This the Muses affirm to be the stock from which discord has sprung, wherever arising; and this is their answer to us.

  546

  b

  c

  d

  e

  547

  Yes, and we may assume that they answer truly.

  Why, yes, I said, of course they answer truly; how can the Muses speak falsely?

  And what do the Muses say next?

  b

  When discord arose, then the two races were drawn different ways: the iron and brass fell to acquiring money, and land, and houses, and gold, and silver; but the gold and silver races, not wanting money, but having the true riches in their own nature, inclined toward virtue and the ancient order of things. There was a battle between them, and at last they agreed to distribute their land and houses among individual owners; and they enslaved their friends and maintainers, whom they had formerly protected in the condition of freemen, and made of them subjects and servants; and they themselves were engaged in war and in keeping a watch against them.7

  c

  I believe that you have rightly conceived the origin of the change.

  And the new government which thus arises will be of a form intermediate between oligarchy and aristocracy?

  Very true.

  Such will be the change, and after the change has been made, how will they proceed? Clearly, the new State, being in a mean between oligarchy and the perfect State, will partly follow one and partly the other, and will also have some peculiarities.

  d

  True, he said.

  In the honor given to rulers, in the abstinence of the warrior-class from agriculture, handicrafts, and trade in general, in the institution of common meals, and in the attention paid to gymnastics and
military training—in all these respects this State will resemble the former.8

  True.

  But in the fear of admitting philosophers to power, because they are no longer to be had simple and earnest, but are made up of mixed elements; and in turning from them to passionate and less complex characters, who are by nature fitted for war rather than peace; and in the value set by them upon military stratagems and contrivances, and in the waging of everlasting wars—this State will be for the most part peculiar.

  e

  548

  Yes.

  Yes, I said; and men of this stamp will be covetous of money, like those who live in oligarchies; they will have a fierce secret longing after gold and silver, which they will hoard in dark places, having magazines and treasuries of their own for the deposit and concealment of them; also castles which are just nests for their eggs, and in which they will spend large sums on their wives, or on any others whom they please.

  b

  That is most true, he said.

  And they are miserly because they have no means of openly acquiring the money which they prize; they will spend that which is another man’s on the gratification of their desires, stealing their pleasures and running away like children from the law, their father: they have been schooled not by gentle influences but by force, for they have neglected her who is the true muse, the companion of reason and philosophy, and have honored gymnastics more than music.

  c

  Undoubtedly, he said, the form of government which you describe is a mixture of good and evil.

  Why, there is a mixture, I said; but one thing, and one thing only, is predominantly seen—the spirit of contention and ambition; and these are due to the prevalence of the passionate or spirited element.

  Assuredly, he said.

  Such is the origin and such the character of this State, which has been described in outline only; the more perfect execution was not required, for a sketch is enough to show the type of the most perfectly just and most perfectly unjust; and to go through all the States and all the characters of men, omitting none of them, would be an interminable labor.

  d

  Very true, he replied.

  Now what man answers to this form of government—how did he come into being, and what is he like?

  I think, said Adeimantus, that in the spirit of contention which characterizes him, he is not unlike our friend Glaucon.

  Perhaps, I said, he may be like him in that one point; but there are other respects in which he is very different.

  e

  In what respects?

  He should have more of self -assertion and be less cultivated and yet a friend of culture; and he should be a good listener but no speaker. Such a person is apt to be rough with slaves, unlike the educated man, who is too proud for that; and he will also be courteous to freemen, and remarkably obedient to authority; he is a lover of power and a lover of honor; claiming to be a ruler, not because he is eloquent, or on any ground of that sort, but because he is a soldier and has performed feats of arms; he is also a lover of gymnastic exercises and of the chase.

  Yes, that is the type of character that answers to timocracy.

  Such a one will despise riches only when he is young; but as he gets older he will be more and more attracted to them, because he has a piece of the avaricious nature in him, and is not single-minded toward virtue, having lost his best guardian.9

  549

  b

  Who was that? said Adeimantus.

  Philosophy, I said, tempered with music, who comes and takes up her abode in a man, and is the only saviour of his virtue throughout life.

  Good, he said.

  Such, I said, is the timocratical youth, and he is like the timocratical State.

  Exactly.

  His origin is as follows: 10 He is often the young son of a brave father, who dwells in an ill-governed city, of which he declines the honors and offices, and will not go to law, or exert himself in any way, but is ready to waive his rights in order that he may escape trouble.

  c

  And how does the son come into being?

  The character of the son begins to develop when he hears his mother complaining that her husband has no place in the government, of which the consequence is that she has no precedence among other women. Further, when she sees her husband not very eager about money, and instead of battling and railing in the law courts or assembly, taking whatever happens to him quietly; and when she observes that his thoughts always centre in himself, while he treats her with very considerable indifference, she is annoyed, and says to her son that his father is only half a man and far too easy-going: adding all the other complaints about her own ill-treatment which women are so fond of rehearsing.

  d

  e

  Yes, said Adeimantus, they give us plenty of them, and their complaints are so like themselves.

  And you know, I said, that the old servants also, who are supposed to be attached to the family, from time to time talk privately in the same strain to the son; and if they see anyone who owes money to his father, or is wronging him in any way, and he fails to prosecute them, they tell the youth that when he grows up he must retaliate upon people of this sort, and be more of a man than his father. He has only to walk abroad and he hears and sees the same sort of thing: those who do their own business in the city are called simpletons, and held in no esteem, while the busy-bodies are honored and applauded. The result is that the young man, hearing and seeing all these things—hearing, too, the words of his father, and having a nearer view of his way of life, and making comparisons of him and others—is drawn opposite ways: while his father is watering and nourishing the rational principle in his soul, the others are encouraging the passionate and appetitive; and he being not originally of a bad nature, but having kept bad company, is at last brought by their joint influence to a middle point, and gives up the kingdom which is within him to the middle principle of con tentiousness and passion, and becomes arrogant and ambitious.

  550

  b

  You seem to me to have described his origin perfectly.

  Then we have now, I said, the second form of government and the second type of character?

  c

  We have.

  Next, let us look at another man who, as Æschylus says, or rather, as our plan requires, begin with the State.

  “Is set over against another State;”gv

  By all means.

  I believe that oligarchy follows next in order.

  And what manner of government do you term oligarchy?

  A government resting on a valuation of property, in which the rich have power and the poor man is deprived of it.

  d

  1 understand, he replied.

  Ought I not to begin by describing how the change from timocracy to oligarchy arises?

  Yes.

  Well, I said, no eyes are required in order to see how the one passes into the other.

  How?

  The accumulation of gold in the treasury of private individuals is the ruin of timocracy; they invent illegal modes of expenditure; for what do they or their wives care about the law?

  Yes, indeed.

  And then one, seeing another grow rich, seeks to rival him, and thus the great mass of the citizens become lovers of money.

  e

  Likely enough.

  And so they grow richer and richer, and the more they think of making a fortune the less they think of virtue; for when riches and virtue are placed together in the scales of the balance the one always rises as the other falls.11

  True.

  And in proportion as riches and rich men are honored in the State, virtue and the virtuous are dishonored.

  551

  Clearly.

  And what is honored is cultivated, and that which has no honor is neglected.

  That is obvious.

  And so at last, instead of loving contention and glory, men become lovers of trade and money; they honor and look
up to the rich man, and make a ruler of him, and dishonor the poor man.

  They do so.

  They next proceed to make a law which fixes a sum of money as the qualification of citizenship;12 the sum is higher in one place and lower in another, as the oligarchy is more or less exclusive; and they allow no one whose property falls below the amount fixed to have any share in the government. These changes in the constitution they effect by force of arms, if intimidation has not already done their work.

  b

  Very true.

  And this, speaking generally, is the way in which oligarchy is established.

  Yes, he said; but what are the characteristics of this form of government, and what are the defects of which we were speaking?gw

  c

  First of all, I said, consider the nature of the qualification. Just think what would happen if pilots were to be chosen according to their property, and a poor man were refused permission to steer, even though he were a better pilot?

  You mean that they would shipwreck?

  Yes; and is not this true of the government of anything?

  I should imagine so.

  Except a city?—or would you include a city?

  Nay, he said, the case of a city is the strongest of all, inasmuch as the rule of a city is the greatest and most difficult of all.

  This, then, will be the first great defect of oligarchy?

  d

  Clearly.

  And here is another defect which is quite as bad.

  What defect?

  The inevitable division: such a State is not one, but two States, the one of poor, the other of rich men; and they are living on the same spot and always conspiring against one another.13

  That, surely, is at least as bad.

  Another discreditable feature is, that, for a like reason, they are incapable of carrying on any war. Either they arm the multitude, and then they are more afraid of them than of the enemy; or, if they do not call them out in the hour of battle, they are oligarchs indeed, few to fight as they are few to rule. And at the same time their fondness for money makes them unwilling to pay taxes.