Encyclopedia of Jewish Food

by Gil Marks

  Eggs are essential in both Ashkenazic and Sephardic Passover fare, binding ingredients in dishes such as Ashkenazic knaidlach, matza brei, chremslach, and kugels and Sephardic minas (layered pies), keftes (patties), and bimuelos (pancakes)—and contributing lightness to baked goods. Hard-boiled eggs are common at a Seder. Both Ashkenazim and Sephardim enjoy meringue cookies, known in America as kisses and called ashuplados by Sephardim. To increase matza's utility, it is also ground to make matza meal or finely ground to make matza cake meal. Crumbled and ground matza is used to create an imaginative array of Passover dishes, including stuffings, puddings, casseroles, pancakes, fritters, dumplings, pastries, and cakes.

  (See also Afikomen (Tzafun), Chametz, Charoset, Gebrochts, Karpas, Kitniyot, Maror, Matza, and Seder)

  Pasta/Noodle

  An archaeological dig at Lajia near the Yellow River in northwestern China uncovered a bowl containing thin strips of boiled millet dough that were four thousand years old, the earliest evidence of pasta. The Chinese later began making pasta from buckwheat and mung bean flours and even later from rice. Around the beginning of the Han Dynasty in 206 BCE, the grindstone traveled east along the Silk Road and the northern Chinese learned how to pound wheat berries and barley into flour. Initially, they boiled strips of wheat dough, which the Chinese called mein (in Cantonese) or mian (in Mandarin); these were the first known wheat noodles. Shortly thereafter, the Chinese were steaming wheat dumplings filled with chopped meat, similar to the modern zheng jiao. Originally, pasta was used in China as an extender for soup, a role it would later initially fill in the West as well. Early Chinese noodles were always made fresh and not dried.

  Noodles probably spread from China along the Silk Road to central Asia and Persia, where they were initially called lakhsha (slippery). Subsequently, lakhsha was relegated to the name of a specific Persian noodle dish. The term, however, remains in other languages for pasta, such as the Eastern Yiddish lokshen. In any case, in Persia, noodles have always played a minor role, subordinate to that of rice.

  The first mention of boiling dough in a non-Chinese source was in the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 350 CE), where pasta was called itriya and iytree. Some scholars contend that the words derive from the Greek itrion, meaning a sesame-and-honey wafer used in religious rites, while others say it comes from itriyah a Farsi word for string. The Babylonian Talmud (c. 500) mentioned a dish of boiled dough called rihata; the word is related to the modern Persian term for noodles, reshteh.

  Filled Pasta. The Mongols of northern China developed a steamed filled bun called man tou (savage's head), which evolved into a filled pasta. Filled pasta spread through east Asia then along the Silk Road to western Asia, then into Europe. 1 Uzbekistan—manti, chuchvara; 2 Turkey—manti; 3 Italy—cappelletti, ravioli, tortelli; 4 Syria—kelsonnes; 5 Afghanistan—mantu; 6 Iran —gush-e barreh; 7 Azerbaijan—dushbara; 8 Russia—pelmeni; 9 Georgia—khinkali; 10 Ukraine—pelmeni, varenikes; 11 Poland—pirogen, kreplach; 12 Baltic States—kreplach; 13 Southwestern Germany—maultaschen

  When medieval Middle Eastern cooks began adding eggs to soft wheat dough, they produced noodles that not only held their shape when dried, but also tasted better and did not become soggy after cooling. They also discovered that noodles made from very high-protein durum flour could be dried (pasta secca) without the addition of eggs. In addition, durum wheat (semolina) pasta was easier to manipulate into shapes, an attribute that would eventually lead to the development of an art form in Italy. The Jerusalem Talmud discussed drying itriya for frying, as drying was an activity forbidden on certain holy days—this was the first record anywhere of dried pasta. The Talmud failed to mention whether Jews or Persians dried pasta during the rest of the year, although this seems likely.

  The Arabs discovered pasta after conquering Persia and were the first group known to dry pasta on a regular basis, making use of the plentiful crops of durum wheat in the Middle East. Traders and soldiers carried supplies of dried pasta on their journeys. Itriya and tria became the Arabic names for dried pasta. Prevalent medieval Middle Eastern forms of pasta included rishta (thick strips), shaghria (thin strips), lissan (birds' tongues), and the most common, keskasune/maghribiyya (little semolina dough pellets), similar to Italian acini de pepe. Besides using pasta as a soup extender, medieval Arabs flavored pasta with sugar, cinnamon, saffron, and almond milk. The Arabs also liked to cook pasta with lentils and fava beans, which eventually led to the classic Italian dish pasta e fagioli, (colloquially pronounced fasool, from the Arabic for bean stew, fasoolia).

  By the tenth century, the Arabs had introduced pasta to Sicily and Spain, where the vast amount of semolina grown allowed for the production of pasta secca. In 1154, the Arab geographer Al-Idrisi mentioned the mass production of tria near Palermo, where Sicilian Jews, unlike the local non-Jewish population, were regularly eating pasta secca, as well as manufacturing it for export. Pasta quickly found a prominent place in the Sephardic and Sicilian Jewish kitchen. Its culinary uses, no longer simply a soup extender or dessert, were expanded with the addition of cheese or a variety of savory sauces. The generic Ladino term macaron was applied to all dried pasta, while fila was generally used for fresh egg pasta. Traditional types of Sephardic pasta included alatria (vermicelli), escolacha (pasta pressed through a strainer), and especially fideos (very thin noodles).

  Pasta, both the concept of boiled dough strips and filled packets, first appeared in mainland Italy sometime after the tenth century, probably in the late twelfth. The Medieval Latin word "pasta" derived from the name of a barley gruel sprinkled with salt, itself from the Greek pastos (sprinkled); it was initially recorded in 1244 in a prescription of a Genovese doctor not to eat "pasta lissa" (slippery noodles). An anonymous Italian cookbook manuscript written between 1260 and 1290 included recipes for vermicelli (little worms), the term used by Apicius (c. 400 CE) in reference to fried strips of dough. The earliest Italian mentions of "macaroni" in the thirteenth century referred not to pasta but rather to dumplings made from "bread paste" and boiled in stews and soups. Eventually, macaroni became a synonym for pasta. Pasta was certainly being eaten in Italy well before the birth of Marco Polo, who is erroneously credited with bringing the dish back to Venice from China in 1295. In his journal, Marco Polo refers to the pasta he saw in China as "lasagne" and "vermicelli."

  The first mention of a boiled dough in a European Jewish source outside of Spain appeared around 1300 in the writings of Kalonymus ben Kalonymus, a Provençal native who spent most of his life in Rome and included macaroni and tortelli (filled pasta) in a list of dishes served at a fantasy Purim feast.

  At first, Italians flavored their macaroni in the Arabic style with almond milk, saffron, and sugar, but eventually began substituting cheese, primarily ricotta and Parmesan, for the almond milk. According to the medieval Galenic theory of humors, ricotta was appropriate for people with energetic dispositions. Italian Jews, when adding cheese, used water instead of the then-prevalent meat broth to cook the pasta, producing a daintier dish. In other instances, bread crumbs were substituted for Parmesan cheese for meat meals. Pasta in tomato sauce would not become popular until the eighteenth century.

  By 1400, commercial pasta production, controlled by guilds, was widespread in Italy. The firm dough was mixed for many hours in large troughs by foot, then rolled out by hand or extruded through brass dies. Pasta was so valuable that full-time watchmen were required for protection. The advent of pasta secca and a related product, hardtack, enabled Europeans to make longer sea voyages, leading to the successes of Vasco da Gama, Columbus, and others. The concept of pasta did not arrive in England until the late fourteenth century—it became known there as "paste"—leaving the English, for a time, at a distinct disadvantage at sea.

  In Naples in the seventeenth century, a pasta- kneading machine and the first mechanical pasta press were invented. Pasta secca became cheap and plentiful and, by the eighteenth century, it had become a mainstay of the diet of the common folk. Venice licen
sed the first pasta factory in 1740.

  Exiled southern Italian Jews, Conversos who had managed to escape from Spain, and Sephardim introduced to northern Italy their pasta dishes as well as tomatoes. Italians even made a type of pasta for Passover from matza flour and eggs that was baked before boiling—it was called sfoglietti or foglietti. Until relatively recently, Italians did not eat cold pasta. When Jews, however, wanted pasta on the Sabbath, it was necessary to find versions that would taste good at room temperature—thus emerged the first pasta salads, such as tagliolini con brodo brusca (thin linguine in egg-lemon sauce) and tagliolini col pomadori (thin linguine in tomato sauce), which were served cold for Sabbath lunch.

  Considering the frequent interaction between the Jewish communities of Italy and Franco-Germany, pasta probably reached the Rhineland around the fifteenth century. Earlier Franco-German dough dishes—such as vermesel (fritters and pancakes) and krepish (meat filled dough)—were fried or baked.

  (See also Calsones, Couscous, Dumpling, Fidello, Frimsel, Keskasune, Kreplach/Krepl, Lokshen, Manti, Masconod, Pastitsio (see Pasticcio), Pirog, Quadrucci, Semolina, Tortelli, and Varenik/Varenikes)

  Pastelito

  Pastelito is a small pie.

  Origin: Spain

  Other names: Greek: pastelico, pasteliko; Ladino: pastele, pastille; Turkish: borekita.

  "We make out of it pastelicos, they shine on the plates waiting to be served with huevos haminados." (From the Ladino folk song "Seven Ways to Cook an Eggplant.")

  Pastel is a venerable Sephardic pie made from a short crust (a soft pastry containing a high proportion of fat and no raising agent) dating back to well before the expulsion from Spain. It is different from another traditional pie, the pastida, which is baked in a covered dish and left over the heat for an extended period. Cooks also developed small, straight-sided, cuplike versions called pastelitos. Both the large pies and small pastries were originally made with a meat filling, but cooks also created versions filled with fish, seasonal vegetables (especially spinach), or cheese. Pastelitos may be both open-topped and covered. After the expulsion from Spain, Sephardim brought these pies with them to North Africa, the Ottoman Empire, and Central America and the Caribbean. In Greece, triangular and cigar-shaped phyllo pastries were also sometimes called pastelicos.

  Large pies are much easier and quicker to prepare than the smaller ones, and are more common during the week. Smaller pies are enjoyed for the Sabbath, holidays, and special occasions, such as weddings and bar mitzvahs. Pastelitos served for Sabbath desayuno (brunch) and Hanukkah, usually contain cheese; these pastries are also called quesadas, kezadas, or guizadas (derived from the Ladino word for "cheese") and are frequently made with a sour cream or cheese crust. Since quesada sounds like casada (Ladino for "married"), some Sephardim have the custom of holding one of the pastries over the head of the prospective bride when the she goes to the mikveh (ritual bath) the night before her wedding. Meat fillings are common for Sabbath dinner. For many Greek Jews, eggplant-and-cheese-filled pastelitos are the essence of Sephardic gastronomy.

  (See also Boreka, Empanada, Pastida, and Sambusak)

  Sephardic Small Pies (Pastelitos)

  about 18 small pies with lids

  [DAIRY, MEAT, or PAREVE]

  1 recipe Sephardic Oil Pastry Dough (Masa Aceite), Sephardic Oil-Butter Pastry Dough (Masa Fina), or Sephardic Sour Cream Pastry Dough (Otra Masa Afrijaldada)

  About 4 cups Sephardic pastry filling (see Gomo (Sephardic Pastry Fillings))

  Egg wash (1 large egg beaten with 1 teaspoon water)

  3 to 4 tablespoons sesame seeds for sprinkling (optional)

  1. Preheat the oven to 375°F. Lightly grease a large baking pan.

  2. Form three-quarters of the dough into about eighteen 1-inch balls and the remaining dough into about eighteen smaller balls.

  3. On a lightly floured surface, roll out the larger balls into 1/8-inch-thick rounds, then form into 2-inch deep cups with straight sides and 2-inch-wide mouths. The dough can also be pressed into greased muffin tins. Fill the cups to the top with the filling.

  4. Roll out the small balls into 2-inch rounds, place the rounds on top of the cups, and crimp or flute the edges to seal. Place the cups in the prepared baking pan. Brush the tops with the egg wash and, if using, sprinkle with the sesame seeds.

  5. Bake until golden brown, about 30 minutes. Serve warm or at room temperature.

  Pasticcio

  Pasticcio is a savory pie containing pasta, and a top and bottom crust.

  Origin: Italy

  Other names: timballo.

  There are three basic types of Italian pies, usually double-crusted: crostata (a tart, usually sweet), torta, (a pie, either sweet or savory, or cake), and pasticcio. When the concept of boiled dough traveled from China to Italy, probably in the early thirteenth century, the new dough made from semolina and cut into thin strips was dubbed pasta and eventually emerged as a staple of the Mediterranean diet. Soon a pie containing pasta, based on an Arabic practice of baking pasta with meat, became pasticcio. In Italian slang, pasticcio also came to mean "hodgepodge" and, in the eighteenth century, it referred to a form of musical theater that borrowed songs from numerous composers and popular melodies.

  The distinctiveness of pasticcio from other pies lies in the filling consisting of a number of components being assembled in layers; the most widespread variation is pasticcio di maccheroni (meat and macaroni pie). Pasticcio is often made from a harder dough than other pies in order to maintain its long straight sides, but many modern variations omit the bottom crust or the pastry completely. Some versions of this dish have a sweet crust (crosta dolce) with a savory filling, which might sound odd but actually works.

  Italian Jews adapted pasticcio to kosher regulations, and meat-filled versions (pasticcio di carne) or fish-filled versions (pasticcio di pesce) became popular Friday night fare. In the pastry for a meat pie, Jewish cooks use olive oil and/or schmaltz for the butter.

  Pastitsio, the name derived from the Italian pasticcio, are baked pasta dishes from Greece. The pasta is frequently layered with cheese or meat, producing a sort of pasta pie. Since Jews could not combine meat and milk, they developed a variety of separate meat and cheese variations, allowing the main elements to shine. There are numerous versions, some simple and others rather complex. Pastitsios are served as an entrée, along with a salad, or as a side dish.

  Italian Pasta Pie (Pasticcio di Maccheroni)

  6 to 8 servings

  [MEAT]

  6 ounces (4 to 5) chicken livers

  Sauce (Ragu):

  3 tablespoons olive oil

  1 medium onion, chopped

  2 cloves garlic, minced

  20 ounces ground beef or veal

  3 ounces mushrooms, sliced

  ¼ cup dry red or white wine

  Pinch of ground nutmeg

  About ¾ teaspoon table salt or 1½ teaspoons kosher salt

  Ground black pepper to taste

  1 large egg

  12 ounces penne, ziti, or elbow macaroni

  ¼ cup olive oil

  Salt to taste

  1 recipe flaky pastry (see Teig/Teyg (Ashkenazic Pastry Dough))

  Egg wash (1 large egg beaten with 1 teaspoon water)

  1. Cut away any membranes and veins from the liver. Lightly sprinkle both sides with kosher salt. Place on an unheated rack on a broiler pan and broil about 4 inches from the heat source on both sides until light brown and the blood has dripped off, about 3 minutes per side. Rinse and pat dry.

  2. To make the sauce: In a large skillet, heat the oil over medium heat. Add the onion and garlic and sauté until soft and translucent, 5 to 10 minutes. Add the meat and sauté until it loses its red color, about 5 minutes. Add the mushrooms and sauté until softened, about 5 minutes. Add the livers and wine and cook until the liquid evaporates. Season with the nutmeg, salt, and pepper. Let cool. Stir in the egg.

  3. Bring a large pot of lightly salted water to a rapid boil
. Stir in the pasta. Cook until tender but still firm, about 10 minutes. Drain and toss with the oil and salt.

  4. Preheat the oven to 375°F. Lightly grease a 9-inch springform pan or round ovenproof dish.

  5. On a lightly floured surface, roll out three- quarters of the pastry into a 14-inch round. Place in the prepared pan, letting the excess reach up the sides and hang over. Spread one-third of the pasta in the pastry shell, top with half the sauce, half the remaining pasta, the remaining sauce, and then the remaining pasta. Alternatively, instead of layering, simply mix the pasta and sauce and spoon into the pastry shell.

  6. Roll out the remaining pastry into a 9-inch round. Place over the filling and press the edges to seal. Prick four times in the center to vent the steam. Brush the top with the egg wash.

  7. Bake until golden brown, 40 to 50 minutes. Let stand for at least 10 minutes before cutting.

  Pastida

  Pastida is a meat or vegetable pie.

  Origin: Spain

  Other names: Austria: brietling; Italy: pasticcio, pizza Ebraica, torta; Ladino: pashtida, pastilla, pastille.

  Double-crusted meat pies became beloved Sabbath fare in medieval European Jewish communities. The upper and lower pastry layers were construed to represent the double portion of manna that the Israelites collected for the Sabbath during their forty years of wandering in the wilderness. The pastry layers were symbolic of the dew that protected the manna.

  The lexicon Arukh (1101) by Rabbi Nathan ben Yehiel of Rome mentioned meat pies, which remained a timeless part of Italian cuisine. The Jews of early medieval Spain also enjoyed large, baked savory pies called pastida (the Latin feminine form of pastillus, "little loaf"). Unlike the pies of non-Jewish medieval Europe, whose hard crusts were discarded or fed to animals, tender Sephardic pastida were consumed crust and all.