CK-12 Biology I - Honors

by CK-12 Foundation

  If the tropics receive more sunlight year-round than any other biome, why are some plants in tropical rainforests adapted to low levels of sunlight?

  Further Reading / Supplemental Links

  Michael Allaby, Grasslands. Chelsea House Publications, 2006.

  Michael Allaby, Temperate Forests. Chelsea House Publications, 2006.

  Michael Allaby, Tropical Rain Forests. Chelsea House Publications, 2006.

  Trevor Day, Taiga. Chelsea House Publications, 2006.

  Peter D. Moore, Tundra. Chelsea House Publications, 2006.

  Susan L. Woodward, Biomes of Earth: Terrestrial, Aquatic, and Human-Dominated. Greenwood Press, 2003.

  http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/watershed/highlands/chaparral/chsoils.html

  http://environment.newscientist.com/article/mg18725124.500.html

  http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookcommecosys.html

  http://ridge.icu.ac.jp/gen-ed/biomes.html

  http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Biomes.htmll

  http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0115.html

  http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/

  http://www.thewildclassroom.com/biomes/index.html

  http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Biomes.html

  Vocabulary

  alpine tundra

  Tundra biome that occurs in mountains around the world at any latitude, but only above the tree line.

  arctic tundra

  Tundra biome that occurs north of the arctic circle and south of the antarctic circle.

  boreal forest

  Subarctic biome covered with conifers.

  chaparral

  Temperate biome with a Mediterranean climate that consists mainly of densely-growing evergreen shrubs such as scrub oak.

  desert

  Temperate or tropical biome that receives no more than 25 centimeters of precipitation per year.

  epiphyte

  Type of plant that grows on other plants for support.

  permafrost

  Frozen soil year-round.

  temperate deciduous forest

  Temperate biome that receives moderate rainfall and consists mainly of deciduous trees such as maples.

  temperate grassland

  Temperate biome that receives relatively low precipitation and consists mainly of grasses.

  temperate rainforest

  Temperate biome that receives heavy rainfall and consists mainly of evergreen trees such as hemlocks.

  tree line

  Edge of the zone at which trees are able to survive.

  tropical dry forest

  Tropical biome that receives relatively low rainfall, has a dry season, and consists mainly of widely spaced, drought-adapted trees.

  tropical grassland

  Tropical biome that receives relatively low rainfall, has a dry season, and consists mainly of grasses.

  tropical rainforest

  Tropical biome that receives heavy rainfall and consists mainly of tall, broadleaf evergreen trees.

  tundra

  Arctic biome where it is too cold for trees to grow.

  Points to Consider

  The land areas where terrestrial biomes are found cover only 30 percent of Earth’s surface. The rest of the surface is covered by water.

  What types of biomes do you think occur in water?

  How do you think water biomes might be classified?

  What do you think are some of the organisms that live in water biomes?

  Lesson 16.3: Aquatic Biomes

  Lesson Objectives

  Describe how aquatic biomes are divided into zones, and list types of aquatic organisms.

  Identify marine biomes, and state which biomes have the highest biodiversity.

  Name types of freshwater biomes, and describe how they differ from one another.

  Introduction

  Terrestrial organisms are generally limited by temperature and moisture. Therefore, terrestrial biomes are defined in terms of these abiotic factors. In contrast, most organisms that live in the water do not have to deal with extremes of temperature or moisture. Instead, their main limiting factors are the availability of sunlight and the concentration of dissolved nutrients in the water.

  What Are Aquatic Biomes?

  Aquatic biomes are biomes found in water. Water covers 70 percent of Earth’s surface, so aquatic biomes are a major component of the biosphere. However, they have less total biomass than terrestrial biomes. Aquatic biomes can occur in either salt water or freshwater. About 98 percent of Earth’s water is salty, and only 2 percent is fresh. The primary saltwater biome is the ocean. Major freshwater biomes include lakes and rivers.

  Aquatic Zones

  In large bodies of standing water (including the ocean and lakes), the water can be divided into zones based on the amount of sunlight it receives. There is enough sunlight for photosynthesis only in - at most - the top 200 meters of water. Water down to this depth is called the photic zone. Deeper water, where too little sunlight penetrates for photosynthesis, is called the aphotic zone.

  Surface water dissolves oxygen from the air, so there is generally plenty of oxygen in the photic zone to support organisms. Water near shore usually contains more dissolved nutrients than water farther from the shore. This is because most dissolved nutrients enter a body of water from land, carried by runoff or rivers that empty into the body of water. When aquatic organisms die, they sink to the bottom, where decomposers release the nutrients they contain. As a result, deep water may contain more nutrients than surface water.

  Deep ocean water may be forced to the surface by currents in a process called '''upwelling.''' When this happens, dissolved nutrients are brought to the surface from the deep ocean. The nutrients can support large populations of producers and consumers, including many species of fish. As a result, areas of upwelling are important for commercial fishing.

  With these variations in sunlight, oxygen, and nutrients, different parts of the ocean or a lake have different types and numbers of organisms. Therefore, life in a lake or the ocean is generally divided into zones. The zones correlate mainly with the amount of sunlight and nutrients available to producers. Figure 1 shows ocean zones. Lakes have similar zones.

  Figure 16.10

  The ocean is divided into many different zones, depending on distance from shore and depth of water. The pelagic zone is divided into neritic and oceanic zones based on distance from shore. Into what additional zones is the pelagic zone divided on the basis of water depth? What additional zones make up the benthic zone?

  The littoral zone is the shallow water near the shore. In the ocean, the littoral zone is also called the intertidal zone.

  The pelagic zone is the main body of open water farther out from shore. It is divided into additional zones based on water depth. In the ocean, the part of the pelagic zone over the continental shelf is called the neritic zone, and the rest of the pelagic zone is called the oceanic zone.

  The benthic zone is the bottom surface of a body of water. In the ocean, the benthic zone is divided into additional zones based on depth below sea level.

  Aquatic Organisms

  Aquatic organisms are classified into three basic categories: plankton, nekton, and benthos. Organisms in these three categories vary in where they live and how they move.

  Plankton are aquatic organisms that live in the water itself and cannot propel themselves through water. They include both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Phytoplankton are bacteria and algae that use sunlight to make food by photosynthesis. Zooplankton are tiny animals that feed on phytoplankton.

  Nekton are aquatic animals that live in the water and can propel themselves by swimming or other means. Nekton include invertebrates such as shrimp and vertebrates such as fish.

  Benthos are aquatic organisms that live on the surface below a body of water. They live in or on the sediments at the bottom. Benthos include sponges,
clams, and sea stars (see Figure 2).

  Figure 16.11

  This sea star, or starfish, is an example of a benthic organism. The tiny white projections on the bottom surface of the sea star allow it anchor to, or slowly crawl over, the bottom surface of the ocean.

  Marine Biomes

  Marine biomes are aquatic biomes found in the salt water of the ocean. Major marine biomes are neritic, oceanic, and benthic biomes. Other marine biomes include intertidal zones, estuaries, and coral reefs.

  Neritic Biomes

  Neritic biomes occur in ocean water over the continental shelf (see Figure 1). They extend from the low-tide water line to the edge of the continental shelf. The water here is shallow, so there is enough sunlight for photosynthesis. The water is also rich in nutrients, which are washed into the water from the nearby land. Because of these favorable conditions, large populations of phytoplankton live in neritic biomes. They produce enough food to support many other organisms, including both zooplankton and nekton. As a result, neritic biomes have relatively great biomass and biodiversity. They are occupied by many species of invertebrates and fish. In fact, most of the world’s major saltwater fishing areas are in neritic biomes.

  Oceanic Biomes

  Oceanic biomes occur in the open ocean beyond the continental shelf. There are lower concentrations of dissolved nutrients away from shore, so the oceanic zone has a lower density of organisms than the neritic zone. The oceanic zone is divided into additional zones based on water depth (see Figure 1).

  The epipelagic zone is the top 200 meters of water, or the depth to which enough sunlight can penetrate for photosynthesis. Most open ocean organisms are concentrated in this zone, including both plankton and nekton.

  The mesopelagic zone is between 200 and 1,000 meters below sea level. Some sunlight penetrates to this depth but not enough for photosynthesis. Organisms in this zone consume food drifting down from the epipelagic zone, or they prey upon other organisms in their own zone. Some organisms are detrivores, which consume dead organisms and organic debris that also drift down through the water.

  The bathypelagic zone is between 1,000 and 4,000 meters below sea level. No sunlight penetrates below 1,000 meters, so this zone is completely dark. Most organisms in this zone either consume dead organisms drifting down from above or prey upon other animals in their own zone. There are fewer organisms and less biomass here than in higher zones. Some animals are bioluminescent, which means they can give off light (see Figure 3). This is an adaptation to the total darkness.

  The abyssopelagic zone is between 4,000 and 6,000 meters below sea level. The hadopelagic zone is found in the water of deep ocean trenches below 6,000 meters. Both of these zones are similar to the bathypelagic zone in being completely dark. They have even lower biomass and species diversity.

  Figure 16.12

  The anglerfish lives in the bathypelagic zone. The rod-like structure protruding from the anglerfishs face is tipped with bioluminescent microorganisms. The structure wiggles like a worm to attract prey. Only the "worm" is visible to prey in the total darkness of this zone.

  Benthic Biomes

  Benthic biomes occur on the bottom of the ocean where benthos live. Some benthos, including sponges, are sessile, or unable to move, and live attached to the ocean floor. Other benthos, including clams, burrow into sediments on the ocean floor. The benthic zone can be divided into additional zones based on how far below sea level the ocean floor is (see Figure 1).

  The sublittoral zone is the part of the ocean floor that makes up the continental shelf near the shoreline. The water is shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate down to the ocean floor. Therefore, photosynthetic producers such as seaweed can grow on the ocean floor in this zone. The littoral zone is rich in marine life.

  The bathyal zone is the part of the ocean floor that makes up the continental slope. It ranges from about 1,000 to 4,000 meters below sea level. The bathyal zone contains no producers because it is too far below the surface for sunlight to penetrate. Although consumers and decomposers live in this zone, there are fewer organisms here than in the sublittoral zone.

  The abyssal zone is the part of the ocean floor in the deep open ocean. It varies from about 4,000 to 6,000 meters below sea level. Organisms that live on the ocean floor in this zone must be able to withstand extreme water pressure, continuous cold, and scarcity of nutrients. Many of the organisms sift through sediments on the ocean floor for food or dead organisms.

  The hadal zone is the ocean floor below 6,000 meters in deep ocean trenches. The only places where organisms are known to live in this zone are at hydrothermal vents, where invertebrates such as tubeworms and clams are found. They depend on microscopic archaea organisms for food. These tiny chemosynthetic producers obtain energy from chemicals leaving the vents (see the Principles of Ecology chapter).

  Intertidal Zone

  The intertidal zone is a narrow strip along the coastline that falls between high- and low-tide water lines. It is also called the littoral zone (see Figure 1). A dominant feature of this zone is the regular movement of the tides in and out. In most areas, this occurs twice a day. Due to the tides, this zone alternates between being under water at high tide and being exposed to the air at low tide. An intertidal zone is pictured in Figure 4.

  Figure 16.13

  These pictures show the Bay of Fundy off the northeastern coast of Maine in North America. The picture on the left shows the bay at high tide, and the picture on the right shows the bay at low tide. The area covered by water at high tide and exposed to air at low tide is the intertidal zone.

  The high tide repeatedly brings in coastal water with its rich load of dissolved nutrients. There is also plenty of sunlight for photosynthesis. In addition, the shallow water keeps large predators, such as whales and big fish, out of the intertidal zone. As a result, the intertidal zone has a high density of living things. Seaweeds and algae are numerous, and they support many consumer species, either directly or indirectly, including barnacles, sea stars, and crabs.

  Other conditions in the intertidal zone are less favorable. For example, there are frequent shifts from a water to an air environment. There are also repeated changes in temperature and salinity (salt concentration). These changing conditions pose serious challenges to marine organisms. The moving water poses yet another challenge. Organisms must have some way to prevent being washed out to sea with the tides. Barnacles, like those in Figure 5, cement themselves to rocks. Seaweeds have rootlike structures, called holdfasts, which anchor them to rocks. Crabs burrow underground to avoid being washed out with the tides.

  Figure 16.14

  Barnacles secrete a cement-like substance that anchors them to rocks.

  Other Marine Biomes

  The intertidal zone has high biodiversity. However, it is not the marine biome with the highest biodiversity. That distinction goes to estuaries and coral reefs. They have the highest biodiversity of all marine biomes.

  An estuary is a bay where a river empties into the ocean. It is usually semi-enclosed, making it a protected environment. The water is rich in dissolved nutrients from the river and shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate for photosynthesis. As a result, estuaries are full of marine life. Figure 6 shows an estuary on the California coast near San Francisco.

  Figure 16.15

  This satellite photo shows the San Francisco Estuary on the California coast. This is the largest estuary on the lower west coast of North America. Two rivers, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, flow into the estuary (upper right corner of photo). The estuary is almost completely enclosed by land but still connected to the ocean.

  A coral reef is an underwater limestone structure produced by tiny invertebrate animals called corals. Coral reefs are found only in shallow, tropical ocean water. Corals secrete calcium carbonate (limestone) to form an external skeleton. Corals live in colonies, and the skeletal material gradually accumulates to form a reef. Coral reefs are rich with marine organisms, including more than 4
,000 species of tropical fish. Figure 7 shows a coral reef in the Hawaiian Islands.

  Figure 16.16

  Colorful fish swim in warm, shallow ocean water near a coral reef off the Hawaiian Islands.

  Freshwater Biomes

  Freshwater biomes occur in water that contains little or no salt. Freshwater biomes include standing water and running water biomes.

  Standing Freshwater Biomes

  Standing freshwater biomes include ponds and lakes. Ponds are generally smaller than lakes and shallow enough for sunlight to reach all the way to the bottom. In lakes, at least some of the water is too deep for sunlight to penetrate. As a result, like the ocean, lakes can be divided into zones based on availability of sunlight for producers.

  The littoral zone is the water closest to shore. The water in the littoral zone is generally shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate, allowing photosynthesis. Producers in this zone include both phytoplankton and plants that float in the water. They provide food, oxygen, and habitat to other aquatic organisms. The littoral zone generally has high productivity and high biodiversity.

  The limnetic zone is the top layer of lake water away from shore. This zone covers much of the lake’s surface, but it is only as deep as sunlight can penetrate. This is a maximum of 200 meters. If the water is muddy or cloudy, sunlight cannot penetrate as deeply. Photosynthesis occurs in this zone, and the primary producers are phytoplankton, which float suspended in the water. Zooplankton and nekton are also found in this zone. The limnetic zone is generally lower in productivity and biodiversity than the littoral zone.