CK-12 Biology I - Honors

by CK-12 Foundation

  Global Warming

  Refrigerants, Aerosols

  Industry (solvents, plastics)

  VOCs, POPs CFCs Cancer, Global Warming Ozone Depletion

  Nuclear power and defense Radioactive waste Cancer

  Landfills Methane (CH4) Global Warming

  Mining Asbestos Respiratory problems

  Biological Warfare Microorganisms Infectious Disease

  Indoor Living CO, VOCs, asbestos, dust, mites, molds, particulates Indoor air pollution

  DDT = an organic pesticide; PCB = poly-chlorinated biphenyls, used as coolants and insulators; DDT and most PCBs are now banned at least in the U.S., but persist in the environment; PAHs = polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – products of burning fossil fuels, many linked to health problems

  Many pollutants travel indoors in building materials, furniture, carpeting, paints and varnishes, contributing to indoor air pollution. In 2002, the World Health Organization estimated that 2.4 million people die each year as a consequence of air pollution – more than are killed in automobile accidents. Respiratory and cardiovascular problems are the most common health effects of air pollution, but accidents which release airborne poisons (the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl, the Union Carbide explosion in Bhopal, and the “Great Smog of 1952” over London) have killed many people – and undoubtedly other animals – with acute exposure to radiation or toxic chemicals.

  If you study the problems caused by air pollution (third column in the tables, above), you will note that beyond human health, air pollution affects entire ecosystems, worldwide. Acid Rain, Ozone Depletion, and Global Warming are widespread and well-recognized global concerns, so we will explore them in detail in independent sections of this lesson, – and an entire lesson on Global Warming. Effects of toxins, which poison wildlife and plants as well as humans, were addressed in discussions of soil and water pollution in the last chapter. Before we move on to the “Big Three,” let’s take a brief look at the problems caused by particulates and aerosols, since these are unique pollutants of air, rather than soil or water.

  “Global dimming” refers to a reduction in the amount of radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. Scientists observed a drop of roughly 4% between 1960 and 1990, and attributed it to particulates and aerosols (in terms of air pollution, aerosols are airborne solid particles or liquid droplets). These pollutants absorb solar energy and reflect sunlight back into space. The consequences for life are many:

  Less sunlight means less photosynthesis.

  Less photosynthesis means less food for all trophic levels.

  Less sunlight means less energy to drive evaporation and the hydrologic cycle.

  Less sunlight means cooler ocean temperatures, which may lead to changes in rainfall, drought and famine.

  Less sunlight may have cooled the planet, masking the effects of Global Warming.

  Recent measurements of sunlight-absorbing particulates show a decline since 1990, which corresponds to a return to normal levels of radiation (Figure above). These data suggest that Clean Air legislation enacted by developed nations may have improved air quality and prevented most of the above effects, at least for now. Two caveats remain:

  If “Global Dimming” did indeed mask Global Warming for 30 years, predictions about future climate change may be too conservative. Keep this in mind when we address Global Warming in the next lesson.

  Population growth and industrialization of developing countries continues to increase levels of pollution.

  Massive waves of pollution from Asian industry have blown across the Pacific by prevailing winds (Figure below). On some days, atmospheric physicists at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography have traced nearly one-third of the air over Los Angeles and San Francisco directly to Asian sources. The waves are made of dust from Asian deserts combined with pollution from increasing industrialization, making the level of particulates and aerosols in Beijing, for example, reach levels 7 times World Health Organization standards. Scientists estimate that the clouds may be blocking 10% of the sunlight over the Pacific. By seeding clouds, the aerosols and particulates may be intensifying storms. In addition to direct effects on the global atmosphere (such waves can circle the Earth in three weeks), these pollution clouds can, as we stated above, mask Global Warming.

  Figure 18.38

  A cloud of smoke and haze covers this region of China from Beijing (top center) to the Yangtze River (bottom right). At the top right, pollution is blowing eastward toward Korea and the Pacific Ocean. Aerosol pollution with large amounts of soot (carbon particles) is changing precipitation and temperatures over China. Some scientists believe that these changes help to explain increasing floods and droughts.

  One additional topic relates to atmospheric change. Light pollution (Figure below) results from humans’ production of light in amounts which are annoying, wasteful, or harmful. Light is essential for safety and culture in industrial societies, but reduction in wasteful excess could mitigate its own harmful effects, as well as the amounts of fossil fuel used to generate it. Astronomers – both amateur and professional – find light interferes with their observations of the night skies. Some studies show that artificial spectra and excessive light exposure has harmful effects on human health. Life evolved in response to natural cycles and natural spectra of light and dark, so it is not surprising that our changes in both of those might affect us and other forms of life. Light pollution can affect animal navigation and migration and predator/prey interactions. Because many birds migrate by night, Toronto, Canada has initiated a program to turn out lights at night during spring and fall migration seasons. Light may interfere with sea turtle egg-laying and hatching, because both happen on coasts at nighttime. The behavior of nocturnal animals from owls to moths can be changed by light, and night-blooming flowers can be affected directly or through disruption of pollination. Zooplankton normally show daily vertical migration, and some data suggests that changes in this behavior can lead to algal blooms.

  Figure 18.39

  When light produced by humans becomes annoying, wasteful, or harmful, it is considered light pollution. This composite satellite image of Earth at night shows that light is concentrated in urban but not necessarily population centers. The U.S. interstate highway system, the Trans-Siberian railroad, and the Nile River are visible at higher magnifications.

  Solutions to problems caused by light pollution include

  reducing use

  changing fixtures to direct light more efficiently and less harmfully

  changing the spectra of light released

  changing patterns of lighting to increase efficiency and reduce harmful effects

  Many cities, especially those near observatories, are switching to low-pressure sodium lamps, because their light is relatively easy to filter.

  Acid Rain

  Do you remember the pH scale? Its range is 0-14, and 7 is neutral – the pH of pure water. You’ve probably measured the pH of various liquids such as vinegar and lemon juice, but do you know how important even very small changes in pH are for life? Your body maintains the pH of your blood between 7.35 and 7.45, and death results if blood pH falls below 6.8 or rises above 8.0. All life relies on relatively narrow ranges of pH, because protein structure and function is extremely sensitive to changes in concentrations of hydrogen ions. An important pollution problem which affects the pH of Earth’s environments is Acid Rain (Figure below).

  Rain, snow, fog, dew, and even dry particles which have an unusually low pH are commonly considered together as Acid Rain, although more accurate terms would be acid precipitation or acid deposition. You will remember that a pH below 7 is acidic, and the range between 7 and 14 is basic. Natural precipitation has a slightly acidic pH, usually about 5, mostly because CO2, which forms 0.04% of the atmosphere, reacts with water to form carbonic acid:

  CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3- + H+

  carbon dioxide water carbonic Acid bicarbonate hydrogen ion

  This natural chemical reaction
is actually quite similar to the formation of acid rain, except that levels of the gases which replace carbon dioxide are not normally significant in the atmosphere. The most common acid-forming pollutant gases are oxides of nitrogen and sulfur released by the burning of fossil fuels. Because burning may result in several different oxides, the gases are often referred to as “NOx and SOx.” This may sound rather affectionate, but it’s more accurate to think of it as obNOXious! Whereas the carbonic acid formed by carbon dioxide is a relatively weak acid, the nitric and sulfuric acids formed by NOx and SOx are strong acids, which ionize much more readily and therefore cause more damage. The reactions given below slightly simplify the chemistry (in part because NOx and SOx are complex mixtures of gases), but should help you see the acidic results of an atmospheric mixture of water and these gases.

  NO2 + OH- → HNO3 ⇌ NO3- + H+

  nitrogen dioxide hydroxide ion (from water)

  nitric Acid nitrate hydrogen ion

  SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 ⇌SO4-2 + 2H+

  sulfur trioxide water sulfuric acid sulfate hydrogen ions

  Nitrogen and sulfur oxides have always been produced in nature by volcanoes and wildfires and by biological processes in wetlands, oceans, and even on land. However, these natural levels are either limited in time or amount; they account for the slightly acidic pH of “normal” rain. Levels of these gases have risen dramatically since the Industrial Revolution began; scientists have reported pH levels lower than 2.4 in precipitation in industrialized areas. Generation of electricity by burning coal, industry, and automobile exhaust are the primary sources of NOx an SOx. Coal is the primary source of sulfur oxides, and automobile exhaust is a major source of nitrogen oxides.

  Figure 18.40

  formation begins when nitrogen and sulfur oxides (here NO and SO) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) from burning fossil fuels escape into the atmosphere. When these gases or particulates combine with water either in the atmosphere or after reaching the ground they become acid deposition. The term acid rain commonly refers to all forms of acid deposition.

  Because most life requires relatively narrow pH ranges near neutral, the effects of acid rain can be devastating. In soils, lowered pH levels can kill microorganisms directly, altering decomposition rates, nutrient cycles, and soil fertility. A secondary effect of increased acidity is the leaching of nutrients, minerals, and toxic metals such as aluminum and lead from soils and bedrock. Depletion of nutrients and mobilization of toxins weakens trees and other plants, especially at higher altitudes where higher precipitation and acid fog damage leaves and needles, as well (Figure below).

  Figure 18.41

  A mountain forest in the Czech Republic shows effects attributed to acid rain. At higher altitudes, effects on soils combine with direct effects on foliage of increased precipitation and fog.

  The flow of acid rain through watersheds increases acidity, nutrients, and toxins in aquatic ecosystems. Fish and insects are sensitive to changes in pH, although different species can tolerate different levels of acidity (Figure below). Food chain disruption can compound even slight changes in pH; for example, acid-sensitive mayflies provide food for less-sensitive frogs. Additional nitrates in aquatic systems can lead to eutrophication and algal blooms, discussed in the last lesson.

  Figure 18.42

  Aquatic species show varying sensitivity to pH levels. Colored bars show survival ranges. Trout are more sensitive to increasing acidity than frogs, but mayflies, which frogs consume, are even more sensitive. Consequently, changes in a lakes acidity may affect ecosystems more severely than simple species sensitivity charts would indicate.

  The sensitivity of lakes, streams, and soils to damage from acid rain depends on the nature of the soils and bedrocks. Watersheds containing limestone, which can buffer (partially neutralize) the acid, are less severely affected. In addition, northern regions with long winters suffer “acid shock” when spring thaws dump months of accumulated acid precipitation into streams and rivers. In the US, lakes and streams in the Appalachians, northern Minnesota and upper New York, and Western mountains have been more severely impacted by acid rain. According to the EPA, the pH of Little Echo Pond in New York state, 4.2, is one of the lowest in the U.S.

  Another class of victims of acid rain is entirely within the realm of human culture and history. Acid’s ability to corrode metal, paints, limestone, and marble has accelerated erosion of buildings, bridges, statues, monuments, tombstones, and automobiles (Figure below).

  Figure 18.43

  Acid rain accelerates erosion of statues, monuments, buildings, tombstones, bridges, and motor vehicles.

  Attempts to solve the problem of acid rain began with building taller smokestacks. These only sent the polluting gases higher into the atmosphere, relieving local problems temporarily, but sending the damage to areas far from their industrial sources. Today in the U.S. and other western nations, smokestacks increasingly use “scrubbers” which remove as much as 95% of SOx from exhausts; the resulting sulfates “scrubbed” from the smokestacks can sometimes be sold as gypsum (used in drywall, plaster, fertilizer and more), but may also be landfilled. Catalytic converters and other emission control technologies remove NOx from motor vehicle exhaust. However, population growth and development throughout the world is increasing pressures to use more fossil fuels and high-sulfur coal, often without these expensive technologies.

  Ozone Depletion

  Many people confuse the “hole in the ozone” with “global warming." Although the two are related in part, they are separate problems with separate effects and only partially overlapping causes, so they require separate solutions.

  Figure 18.44

  At altitudes less than 5 kilometers, respiratory irritant smog ozone forms when sunlight reacts with pollutants. The Ozone Layer, at altitudes between 15 and 35 kilometers, forms when UV radiation interacts with oxygen, and shields life on Earth from 97-99% of the Suns damaging UV radiation.

  Ozone is both a threat and a gift (Figure below). As a ground-level product of the interaction between sunlight and pollutants, it is considered a pollutant which is toxic to animals’ respiratory systems. However, as a component of the upper atmosphere, it has shielded us and all life from as much as 97-99% of the sun’s lethal UV radiation for as long as 2 billion years. The “hole” in the ozone develops in this thin upper Ozone Layer. How long will that protection continue? Let’s explore the problem of ozone depletion.

  Figure 18.45

  The ozone cycle involves the conversion of oxygen molecules to ozone (1 and 2) a slower reconversion of ozone molecules to oxygen (3). Interactions among ozone molecules or the presence of other reactive gases trigger the loss of ozone.

  The Ozone (O3) Layer forms when UV radiation strikes oxygen molecules (O2) in the stratosphere, between 15 and 35 kilometers above the Earth’s surface. Even the highest concentrations of ozone are only about 8 parts per million, but ever since photosynthesis oxygenated the Earth’s atmosphere, allowing ozone-forming chemical reactions, this thin Ozone Layer has shielded life from the mutagenic effects of ultraviolet radiation – especially the more damaging UV-B and UV-C wavelengths (Figure above).

  Figure 18.46

  Total global monthly ozone levels measured by three successive spectrometers (TOMS) show both seasonal variations and a general decline.

  The thickness of the Ozone Layer varies seasonally and across the Earth – thicker in Spring than in Autumn, and at the Poles compared to near the Equator. Ozone depletion describes two related declines in stratispheric ozone. One is loss in the total amount of ozone in the Earth’s stratosphere – about 4% per year from 1980 to 2001 (Figure below). The second, much larger loss refers to the ozone hole – a seasonal decline over Antarctica (Figures below and 14), which has now lost as much as 70% of pre-1975 ozone levels. A much smaller “dimple” overt the North Pole has also shown a 30% decline. The Antarctic ozone hole occasionally affects nearby Australia and New Zealand after annual breakup. A secondary effe
ct is the decline in stratosphere temperatures, because when ozone absorbs UV radiation, it is transformed into heat energy.

  Figure 18.47

  On September 24, 2006 the seasonal ozone hole over the Antarctic covered a record daily area (29.5 million square kilometres or 11.4 million square miles). Blue and purple areas show the lowest ozone levels, and green, yellow, and red indicate successively higher levels.

  Figure 18.48

  Lowest annual values of ozone in the ozone hole decreased dramatically between 1980 and 1995. Before 1980, values less than 200 Dobson units were rare, but in recent years, values near 100 units are common. Unusually high temperatures in the Antarctic stratosphere may have caused the high reading in 2002.

  The causes of ozone depletion are gases which unbalance the ozone cycle (Figure above) toward the breakdown of ozone. Chlorine and bromine gases have increased due to the use of chlorfluorocarbons (CFCs) for aerosol sprays, refrigerants (Freon), cleaning solvents, and fire extinguishers. These ozone-depleting substances (ODS) escape into the stratosphere, and when UV radiation frees chlorine and bromine atoms, these unstable atoms break down ozone. Scientists estimate that CFCs take 15 years to reach the stratosphere, and can remain active for 100 years. Each chlorine atom can catalyze thousands of ozone breakdown reactions.

  Ozone depletion and the resulting increase in levels of UV radiation reaching earth could have some or all of the following consequences:

  effects on human health

  increase in skin cancers, including melanomas

  increased incidence of cataracts