The Mammoth Book of King Arthur

by Mike Ashley

  → The late fourteenth century Middle English verse romance Sir Cleges has nothing to do with Cligés. It is set in the time of Uther Pendragon and concerns a knight who has fallen on hard times and is forgotten but whose virtue is eventually rewarded.

  The standard translations of Cligés are those by D.D.R. Owen in Arthurian Romances (Dent, 1987) and by William W. Kibler in Arthurian Romances (Penguin, 1991). Kibler’s translation also appears in the new edition of Arthurian Romances edited by James J. Wilhelm (Garland, 1994).

  YVAIN: THE KNIGHT WITH THE LION, Chrétien de Troyes (French, c1177), 6,818 lines.

  The story starts in Arthur’s court at Carduel. Yvain learns from Calogrenant of a remarkable spring in the Forest of Broceliande. If you draw water from the spring and pour it on an adjacent marble block it creates a mighty storm. Calogrenant did this and was challenged by Esclados the Red, the Guardian of the Spring. Esclados defeated Calogrenant but set him free. King Arthur vows to set out to fight Esclados for having challenged one of his knights but Yvain gets there first and mortally wounds Esclados. Pursuing the Guardian to his castle, Yvain is trapped but helped by the damsel Lunette, who gives him a magic ring which renders him invisible. Lunette’s mistress, Laudine, widow of Esclados, is now fearful for their safety as the Spring needs a new Guardian. Yvain falls in love with her and agrees to marry her and be the new Guardian. Freshly armoured, he faces Arthur and his knights when they arrive at the Spring. Yvain defeats Kay but is recognised. Arthur is happy for Yvain. Gawain is attracted to Lunette and agrees to be her champion.

  After several years Yvain grows tired of marital bliss and wishes to return to the Round Table for adventure. Laudine agrees that he may go for a year, but he must then return. However, Yvain so enjoys the adventuring life that he forgets the passage of time and fails to return. A damsel arrives with the message that Laudine has no desire to see him again and takes back Yvain’s wedding ring. Yvain is distraught, loses his wits, and runs into the forest like a madman.

  Yvain is saved by a countess whose maiden applies a magic ointment (from Morgan le Fay) which cures his madness. In return Yvain saves the countess from her wicked neighbour Count Alier, who has been taking her lands. The countess wishes Yvain would remain as her husband but he sets off on further adventures. He encounters a battle between a dragon and a lion and kills the dragon. The lion becomes Yvain’s constant companion. From this moment Yvain and the lion are unconquerable although at one point, when Yvain takes on the giant Harpin, he has the lion confined to a castle because the giant claims the battle is uneven. Yvain is nearly defeated but the lion rescues him. The lion would seem to represent the strength that Yvain gains by drawing upon an inner reserve, probably meant to be the love of Christ, but possibly also the love of the chivalric ideal. Later Yvain again does battle with Gawain, as both are champions for opposing sides in a conflict. Thankfully they recognize each other, and Arthur uses his wisdom to reconcile the conflict. Eventually Yvain and Laudine are reconciled and Yvain lives on happily as the Guardian of the Spring.

  →Owain, or The Lady of the Fountain. The Welsh version is identical, with the names changed, but is much truncated, with the adventures mere episodes rather than stirring tales. The second half, after Owain becomes Guardian of the Spring, is much reduced. He is also allowed to return to Arthur’s court for only three months rather than a year.

  →Iwein, by Hartmann von Aue (German, early 1200s). Very similar to Chrétien’s but again more intense and passionate. When Iwein believes he has lost his wife, first his madness and then his adventuring are both reckless until he can come to terms with his responsibilities.

  → Ywain and Gawain, anon. (English, 1340s) is the only surviving English version. It concentrates on the basic heroic story with all the courtly romance deleted. The original English text is available in Yvain and Gawain, edited by Maldwyn Mills (Dent, 1992).

  The standard translations of Chrétien’s works are both called Arthurian Romances, translated by D.D.R. Owen (Dent, 1987) and by William W. Kibler (Penguin, 1991).

  LAI DU CORT MANTEL (The Lay of the Short Mantle), anon. (French, c1200s).

  Another tale of a chastity test, except that here a young man arrives with a beautiful cloak or mantle which every lady must try on. However, it will only fit those who have remained faithful to their husbands. Everyone fails the test except for a maiden who had at first not been at the court because she was ill. The lay is sometimes called Le Mantel Mautaillié.

  A translation by Marianne E. Kalinke is in the new edition of Arthurian Romances edited by James J. Wilhelm (Garland, 1994). An abridged retelling appears as “The Boy and the Mantle” in Secret Camelot (Blandford, 1997) and The Book of Arthur (Vega, 2002), both by John Matthews.

  LAI DU TYOLET, anon. (French, c1200s).

  Most authorities believe this lai originally told a non-Arthurian story but was reworked to fit the new craze. Whether it borrowed from other Arthurian tales (chiefly the Perceval saga), or whether all were derived from an even earlier tale, is not certain. The lai falls into two halves. The first tells of the youth of Tyolet who, like Perceval, is raised in the woods, becomes captivated by knights and leaves his mother to go to Arthur’s court. At court a damsel seeks Arthur’s aid in obtaining the foot of a white stag. Various knights fail but Tyolet succeeds. However, he is attacked by a lion and left for dead, and another knight claims the prize. Gawain finds Tyolet and the impostor is revealed.

  A translation by Jessie L. Weston is in Guingamore, Lanval, Tyolet, Bisclavaret (Nutt, 1900; reprinted Llanerch, 1994). An abridged version is in Secret Camelot (Blandford, 1997) and The Book of Arthur (Vega, 2002), both by John Matthews.

  WIGALOIS, Wirnt von Grafenberg (German, early 1200s) 11,700 lines.

  Perhaps inspired by Renaud’s Le Bel Inconnu, this is a story in the “fair unknown” tradition. A strange knight offers Guenevere a magic girdle and states that should she choose not to keep it he will fight all knights who take up his challenge. She returns the girdle and, wearing it, the knight defeats all, including Gawain. He takes Gawain prisoner and returns to his faery realm where Gawain marries the knight’s niece Florie. Gawain later returns to Arthur’s court but when he tries to find the faery land and Florie he cannot. He is thus unaware that Florie has borne him a son, Wigalois.

  Twenty years later Wigalois visits Arthur’s court and passes the test of acceptance. Gawain becomes his mentor, neither knowing of their relationship. Wishing to prove himself, Wigalois becomes the champion of a maiden who needs help to free the castle of her mistress Larie from the heathen usurper Roaz. Wigalois passes through various adversities and challenges, each more perilous than the last, during one of which he learns that Gawain is his father, and eventually defeats Roaz with God’s aid. A water-wheel, which blocks Wigalois’s access to Roaz’s castle, and which is covered in swords and axes, stops when Wigalois prays for God’s help. Thus the Christian has overcome the heathen. At the end Wigalois marries Larie in the presence of Gawain.

  A translation by J.W. Thomas is published as Wigalois, the Knight of Fortune’s Wheel (University of Nebraska Press, 1977).

  FERGUS OF GALLOWAY, Guillaume le clerc (possibly William Malveisin) (French, early 1200s), 6182 lines.

  Though composed in French this poem may have been written in Scotland. D.D.R. Owen suggests it may have been by William Malveisin (d.1238), bishop of St Andrews from 1202, who would have known Alain of Galloway and others possibly associated with the work. Most notably the Lady Galiene may be the same as Galiena, daughter of the earl of Dunbar and Lothian and wife of Philip of Mowbray, Scottish ambassador to England in 1215.

  Guillaume borrowed freely from the works of Chrétien. Fergus is a peasant who becomes smitten with the sight of knights and sets off to seek his fortune. He reaches Arthur’s court where the sarcastic Kay sets him a quest to acquire the horn and wimple of Nouquetran guarded by the Black Knight. He falls in love with Galiene, the Lady of Lothian, but knows he must first complete
his quest. He succeeds, but on his return finds that the Lady Galiene has been abducted and the story follows his search for her against many challenges. He is victorious and marries her. The story displays a light humour and is in all likelihood written about people and places known to Malveisin and the Lords of Lothian and Galloway.

  A translation by D.D.R. Owen is Fergus of Galloway, Knight of King Arthur (Dent, 1991).

  MERAUGIS DE PORTLESGUEZ, Raoul de Houdenc (French, c1210s) 5,938 lines.

  Possibly by the same author as La Vengeance Raguidel, and probably the same as the Beauvais knight Radulfus de Hosdenc. This poem of romantic rivalry cleverly weaves together playful adventures and a more serious quasi-mystical quest by Gawain to find the Sword of Strange Hangings (which was a key element in the Grail Quests). The main story line concerns the rivalry between Meraugis and Gorvain for the love of Lidoine and the various exploits Meraugis has to undergo to prove his worth.

  Extracts of a prose translation are included in King Arthur in Legend and History edited by Richard White (Dent, 1997).

  YDER, anon. (French, 1210s) 6,769 lines.

  A verse romance about Yder, an illegitimate squire who sets out to find his father Nuc, and falls in love with Queen Guenloie. He saves King Arthur who has been attacked but when Arthur is less than grateful Yder supports Talac de Rogemont, whose castle Arthur is besieging. Three times Yder defeats Kay, who takes his revenge by trying to poison Yder. He is healed by Guenloie and saves Guenièvre when she is attacked by a bear. He also fights a duel with his father before realizing who he is. He is accepted into the Round Table but Arthur becomes jealous of him because Guenièvre states that had she not married Arthur she would have married Yder. Yder successfully completes a quest for Guenloie and marries her, whilst his mother also marries his father. Yder seems a prototype for Lancelot and some have suggested that Guenloie was a variant for Guenevere.

  A translation is in Yder edited by Alison Adams (Brewer, 1983). An extract appears in King Arthur in Legend and History edited by Richard White (Dent, 1997).

  DANIEL VON DEM BLÜHENDEN TAL (Daniel of the Flowering Valley), Der Stricker (German, c1215) 8,482 lines.

  The young Daniel comes to Arthur’s court and undertakes a series of quests against a supernatural foe. The story is one of adventure rather than courtly intrigue, and Arthur himself takes part in the exploits, which include the abduction of the Queen. It is clearly influenced not only by the stories of Lancelot and Perceval but also such Greek and Roman stories as the tale of Medusa. What is most original about the story is that Daniel succeeds more by cunning than strength or force. Indeed the story seems to question current ideals of warfare.

  → The story was reworked as Garel vom blühenden Tal (Garel of the Flowering Valley) by Der Pleier (Austrian, c1240s) but with fewer Arthurian connections.

  A translation of Daniel is in Der Stricker: Daniel of the Blossoming Valley by Michael Resler (Garland, 1990). A translation of Garel is in The Pleier’s Arthurian Romances by J.W. Thomas (Garland, 1992).

  JAUFRÉ, anon. (French, c1220s) 10,956 lines.

  The only surviving Provençal Arthurian romance, this is a bright, lively, humorous tale of chivalry that verges on the parodic. Dates for its composition have varied from the 1180s to the 1220s, but the obvious familiarity with the work of Chrétien and the dedication to a young king of Aragon tend to favour dates either around 1204/5 or 1225.

  The story is simple but compelling. Jaufré, whom most commentators see as a version of Chrétien’s Girflet, sets out from Arthur’s court to avenge both Arthur and the knight Melian against the brutal Taulat de Rogimon (see Yder). There are various adventures and misadventures and the inevitable love interest before all is brought to a satisfactory conclusion when Jaufré rescues and marries Brunissen.

  It was first translated by Alfred Elwes as Jaufré the Knight and the Fair Brunnisen (Addey, 1856; reprinted Newcastle, 1979). More recent translations are Jaufry the Knight and the Fair Brunnisende by Vernon Ives (Holiday House, 1935) and Jaufre: An Occitan Arthurian Romance by Ross G. Arthur (Garland, 1992). An abridged version is “Jaufre” in Secret Camelot (Blandford, 1997) and The Book of Arthur (Vega, 2002), both by John Matthews.

  GLIGLOIS, anon. (French, c1220s) 2,942 lines.

  A courtly romance which just happens to be set at Carduel. The young Gliglois comes to Arthur’s court, determined to be a knight, and becomes Gawain’s squire. Both fall in love with the same maiden, Guenevere’s handmaid Beauté, but whilst Gawain assumes she will love him because of his reputation, Gliglois works hard to prove his worth, and succeeds.

  Translated as Gliglois edited by Charles H. Livingston (Harvard University Press, 1932). An extract is included in King Arthur in Legend and History edited by Richard White (Dent, 1997).

  DURMART LE GALLOIS, anon. (French, late 1220s/1230s) 15,998 lines.

  Durmart is the son of the King of Ireland and Denmark, though his name suggests he is Welsh. A lusty young man, he needs to prove himself after having had an affair with the wife of his father’s seneschal. Learning of the beauty of the Queen of Ireland he determines to win her hand. When they do meet he does not recognize her and continues in his quest. He is welcomed by Arthur’s court, having rescued Guenevere from a brutish knight, but he refuses to join the Round Table until he has found his love. He finds her in Limerick under siege, but the culprit flees rather than combat Durmart. Rescued, the queen marries Durmart. At one stage the queen is accused of atheism whilst Durmart undertakes a pilgrimage to Rome. He also, surprisingly, sits at the Siege Perilous when he visits Camelot, even though that’s against all the rules. The author was evidently modelling Durmart on Perceval, but the end result is unconvincing.

  HISTORIA MERIADOCI (The Story of Meriadoc), anon. (Anglo-Norman, late 1270s).

  A Latin prose romance, probably by the same author as De Ortu Waluuanii. It concerns Meriadoc, heir to the throne of Cambria in the days of Uther Pendragon. Meriadoc’s father Caradoc is killed by his brother Griffin, who usurps the throne. Meriadoc and his sister Orwen are raised by the old king’s huntsman. He becomes a knight at Arthur’s court, and with Arthur’s help wins back his kingdom and brings his uncle to justice. Meriadoc, however, feeling he is not ready to rule, leaves the kingdom in the hands of his sister’s husband Urien of Scotland, and returns to serve under King Arthur. He helps in the defeat of the Black Knight of the Black Forest which sets in chain a series of events that becomes Meriadoc’s quest to help the Emperor of the Alemanni quell the many warring factions in Europe. Although he succeeds, Meriadoc is tricked by the German emperor and turns to the King of Gaul for his final victory. He is rewarded with many lands which he rules on behalf of the King of Gaul, who has now become the German emperor.

  A translation is in The Story of Meriadoc, King of Cambria edited by Mildred Leake Day (Garland, 1988). An abridged version is in The Unknown Arthur (Blandford, 1995) and The Book of Arthur (Vega, 2002), both by John Matthews.

  WIGAMUR, anon. (German, c1250s), 6,000 lines.

  A minor verse romance which survives only in a few incomplete forms. It is derivative of the story of Lanzelet but otherwise has few recognizable Arthurian traits. Wigamur, the son of a king, is abducted in his youth and raised by a water fey. He becomes chivalrous and courteous, and enters the service of Arthur’s uncle Yttra. He later accompanies Arthur in support of Queen Ysope, who is under siege by the heathen King Marroch. Wigamur discovers his true identity and marries his true love.

  TANDAREIS UND FLORDIBEL, Der Pleier (Austrian, c1250s), 18,339 lines.

  MELERANZ, Der Pleier (Austrian, c1250s), 12,834 lines.

  Tandareis is a courtly romance of minor Arthurian association, of interest because it casts Arthur in a dark light. Tandareis is in love with Flordibel, but Arthur declares he will kill anyone who claims her love. The couple elope and Arthur pursues, but Gawain achieves an agreement. Tandareis has to prove himself on various quests abroad. He succeeds admirably but refuses to return to Arthur’s court
, even though Arthur now wants him back. All, though, eventually ends happily.

  Meleranz is of even less Arthurian interest, though may be seen as the stereotypical romance. A young prince wants to become a knight at Arthur’s court. On his way he falls in love with the young queen Tydomie. Meleranz continues to Arthur’s court and after two years becomes a knight. Wishing to return to claim the hand of Tydomie, he undergoes various adventures and rescues Tydomie from the clutches of King Libers.

  A translation of both poems is in The Pleier’s Arthurian Romances by J.W. Thomas (Garland, 1992).

  TOREC, Jacob van Maerlant (Dutch, c1262), 3,850 lines.

  Almost certainly a translation of an anonymous French poem, Torrez, le chevalier au cercle d’or, which no longer survives, though we do not know what changes Maerlant wrought. A precious diadem is stolen from Torec’s grandmother and he searches for it. It comes into the hands of Miraude who has vowed to marry the knight who will defeat all the other knights of the Round Table. Gawain conspires to help Torec by cutting the saddle girths of the knights so that Torec prevails.

  FLORIANT ET FLORETE, anon. (French, c1260s), 8,278 lines.

  Another stereotypical romance. Floriant is the posthumous son of the king of Sicily, who has been murdered by his seneschal. Floriant is abducted by Morgan le Fay who educates him in all the arts and sends him on a magic ship to Arthur’s court. Hardly has he arrived than he learns that his true mother is being besieged by the seneschal in Sicily so returns, supported by Arthur. Floriant is victorious and marries Florete, daughter of the Emperor of Constantinople. Like Chrétien’s Erec, Floriant is accused of idleness and so sets off across Europe to Britain with Florete, encountering many adventures including one where she saves him from a dragon. He settles down again in Sicily and, at the end, follows a white stag to Morgan’s castle. The ending is missing.