Rivers of Gold

by Hugh Thomas

  7. CDI, 39, 416.

  8. Fernando Colón [4:40], 284.

  9. Fernando Colón [4:40], 285.

  10. The Mayan Indians are discussed in ch. 33.

  11. Fernando Colón [4:40], 286. Columbus does not seem to mention this in his own relación, unless he was speaking of it when he spoke of Ciguare. Perhaps some of these Maya would be caught up in Cortés’s conquests in Mexico.

  12. Fernando Colón [4:40], 288.

  13. A recent duke of Veragua was pointlessly murdered by terrorists in El Salvador c. 1985 when serving with the Spanish embassy there.

  14. Cit. Lewis Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America, Philadelphia 1949, 25.

  15. See Méndez’s will in Navarrete [4:38], 1, 240–47, tr. by J. M. Cohen in his The Four Voyages of Columbus, Harmondsworth 1969, 305ff.

  16. Colón [4:16], 491.

  17. Colón [4:16], 492.

  18. In his will, in Navarrete [4:38], 1, 245.

  19. Fernando Colón said that Méndez and Fieschi left with two canoes, each with six Christians and ten Indian paddlers from Jamaica to Santo Domingo.

  20. Colón [4:16], 501.

  21. Fernando Colón [4:40], 328; Méndez’s account, 315.

  22. “During which time he burned or hanged eighty-four ruling caciques, among them the lady Anacoana, the greatest chieftain in the island.”

  23. Fernando Colón [4:40], 328.

  24. Méndez refers to this [16:15], 316.

  25. Colón [4:16], 504–5. Fernando said that he took no letters.

  26. Colón [4:16], 18, fn 4.

  27. Qu. Fernández-Armesto [4:49], 98. On Nov. 4, 1504, there was received in Spain the bull Illius fulciti presidio, which accepted the Spanish petition for an archbishop of the Indies and two bishops. The site of the metropolitan see was to be “Hyaguatensis,” which has never been identified. Maguacensis (Concepción de la Vega) and Bayunensis (near Lares de Guanaba in the northeast) were the names of the two bishoprics. Anyway, these were not carried through. There were endless delays in establishing the bishoprics, and it was not till 1511 that Alonso Manso, García de Padilla, and Pedro de Deza were named for the three seats (Colón [4:16], 516).

  28. Pierre and Huguette Chaunu, Séville et l’Atlantique, 7 vols., Paris 1956, 1, 116, propose 3 for 1501, 23 for 1506 (12 returning), 33 for 1507 (19 returning), and 45 for 1508 (21 returning).

  29. Gil [3:37], 3, 384.

  30. Pérez de Tudela [9:39], 239, citing Muñoz Collection, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid A-102, f. 210r; see also Fernando Ortiz, “La ‘leyenda negra’ contra Bartolomé de las Casas,” Cuadernos Americanos, 65, 5, Mexico 1952, 155.

  31. Miguel Ladero Quesada and Gonzalo Jiménez, Diezmo eclesiástico y producción de cereales en el reino de Sevilla, 1408–1503, Seville 1979, 91.

  32. Heers [4:8], 20; Liss [2:42], 327.

  33. Gil [3:37], 2, 12.

  34. Gil [3:37], 1, 211.

  35. Navarrete [4:38], 1, 321.

  36. For Gutiérrez, see Ramón Carande, Carlos V y sus banqueros, 3 vols., 3rd ed., Barcelona 1987, 2, 85ff., and Kellenbenz [3:32], 41.

  37. The guarantors included Martín Centurione, Alfonso de la Torre, and Diego de la Fuente.

  38. Enrique Otte, Sevilla y sus mercaderes a fines de la Edad Media, Seville 1996, 169.

  39. “Lo que parece se debe proveer, para poner en orden el negocio y contratación de las Indias,” in AGS (Simancas), published by the great scholar Ernst Schäfer, in Investigación y Progreso, year 8, no. 2.

  40. AGI, Indif., Gen., leg. 120, lib. 3, f. 4f; Navarrete [4:38], 1, 472 ff., and CDIU, 5, 29–42.

  41. Earl Hamilton [3:8], 13, fn 1.

  42. Schäfer [9:19], 1, 12, and Miguel Angel Ladero Quesada, El primer oro de América, Madrid 2002, 10.

  43. The Casa was reorganized in 1507 in order to prevent fraud and to ensure that the Crown received its share of the profits (see CDI, 39, 159–62, of Nov. 29, 1507).

  44. CDI, 31, 139ff. (from Alcalá de Henares); see Eduardo Ibarra, “Los precendentes de la Casa de la Contratación,” R de I, 3, 4, 5, 1941.

  45. Qu. Schäfer [9:19], 1, 13, fn 1.

  46. CDI, 31, 212, dated January 8, 1504, from Medina del Campo.

  47. It moved to Cadiz in the eighteenth century.

  48. Pérez de Tudela, “Política de Contratación,” R de I, 15, 1955, 380.

  49. CDI, 31, 174–79.

  50. CDI, 31, 156–74.

  51. AGI, Indif., Gen., 418, 1, f. 95v. The last-named is one of the oldest Marian antiphons; and Ave María remains the most popular of prayers.

  52. CDI, 31, 176.

  53. That year, 1503, Cisneros had convoked a group of scholars to work on his planned Bible in seven languages: Nebrija, the great Latinist and philologist, would do the Vulgate; Demetrio Ducas of Crete, Diego López de Stúñiga, and Hernán Núñez would do the Greek text; and three conversos, Alfonso de Alcalá, Pablo Coronel, and Alfonso de Zamora, would do the Hebrew text.

  54. It was signed by a number of secretaries: Gricio, Zapata, Lic. Johannes, Lic. Tello, Lic. de la Fuente, Lic. Santiago, and Lic. Polanco. See Navarrete [4:38], 2, 414.

  55. “donde estaba una gente que se dice caníbales.”

  56. “prendiendose para los comer como de fecho les comen.”

  57. “los dichos caníbales sean castigados por los delitos que han cometido contra mis súbditos.”

  58. “los pueden cautivar e cautiven para los llevar a las tierras e islas donde fueron e para que los pueden traer e traigan a estos mis reinos e señoríos.” Navarrete [4:38], 1, 550–51.

  59. Summarized in Hanke [16:14], 26.

  60. CDI, 31, 209–12. See Arranz [12:17], 92. Also in Navarrete [4:38], 1, 481.

  61. So at least says the Real Academia’s dictionary.

  62. Las Casas [2:50], 3, 28.

  63. Otte [16:38], 140.

  64. Sannazaro was of Spanish origin but lived in Naples.

  65. Rumeu [2:2], 300–8.

  66. See Ruiz-Domènec [3:20], 341ff. Pastor [1:7], 6, 241.

  67. Martyr has a very exciting account of the death of Alexander: poison intended for other cardinals but drunk by mistake by the Pope and his son Cesare (Martyr [1:2], 2, 69).

  68. Martyr [1:2], 2, 86.

  69. Ballesteros Gabrois, in Fernando el Católico, pensamiento [1:22], 133.

  70. See Suárez [1:20].

  71. L. B. Simpson, The Encomienda in New Spain, 1492–1550, Berkeley, CA, 1934, 32. The list of the Queen’s executors contained no surprises. They were Fernando, the King; inevitably, Cisneros; Antonio de Fonseca, the chief accountant of the realm (contador mayor) and brother of the “Minister for the Indies,” Bishop Fonseca; Juan Velázquez de Cuéllar, the Queen’s chief accountant and a member of the famous family of public servants, being a cousin of that Diego Velázquez who was at the time deputy of Ovando, in western La Española; Fray Diego de Deza, the Infante Juan’s chief preceptor, just appointed to the archbishopric of Seville in succession to Cardinal Hurtado de Mendoza and Columbus’s friend; and Juan López de Lazarraga, a secretary to the monarchs since 1503.

  72. Oviedo [2:43], 3, 130–37; Navarrete [4:38], 2, 39.

  73. Colón [4:16]: “con tanta diligencia y amor como y más que por ganar el Paraíso.”

  74. Azcona [1:21], 48.

  75. Martyr [1:2], 2, 91.

  Chapter 17

  1. Martyr [1:2], 2, 213. “A ti hija mía como la señora del reino, corresponde elegir el lugar donde prefieres que vayamos.” La reina le replicaba “los hijos deben obedecer constantemente a sus padres.”

  2. Clause 26 of Isabel’s will provided that Fernando should exercise the government of Castile in three circumstances.

  3. The great courtier Juan Manuel, ex-ambassador of Fernando and Isabel to Maximilian, a Spanish aristocrat of royal blood, was the organizer in Flanders of a party favorable to Philip; while the Duke of Alba and the Count of Tendilla seemed firmly for Fernando. Fernando also had the support of
his cousin, the Marquis of Denia, the Count of Cifuentes, as well as Pedro de Farjardo, the adelantado of Murcia. But Philip soon had backing from the Count of Benavente, the Marquis of Villena, and the Dukes of Nájera and Medina Sidonia, all of whom feared Fernando (“the Bat” or the “old Catalán,” as they called him) as a potentially strong king who would, if he could, diminish their power still further. The Constable, Velasco; the Admiral, Enríquez; and the Duke of Infantado, the head of the Mendozas, were all studiously neutral, allying with one another in the name of Isabel.

  4. Elliott [1:25], 127.

  5. Otte [16:38], 140. This was the year when, in order to improve the postal service of Castile, a correo mayor was appointed, the task being given to the celebrated family the Taxis. Aragon had always had a good postal service. Now Castile was going to be bullied into ensuring better arrangements. Within a generation the Taxis could guarantee deliveries of letters from Rome to Madrid in twenty-four days in summer, twenty-six in winter.

  6. Rumeu [2:2], 321.

  7. Gil [3:37], 1, 231.

  8. Rumeu [2:2], 318.

  9. Gil [3:37], 1, 232: “este negocio de la santa inquisición; lo cual, placiendo a Dios, se hará en breve tiempo.”

  10. Gil [3:37], 1, 232.

  11. Martyr [1:2], 3, 22: “Su puerto no conoce igual. Tiene capacidad para todas las naves que surcan por los mares.” This journey of Philip’s can be studied in A. Lalaing’s voyage in Collection des Voyages des Souverains des Pays-Bas, ed. M. Gachard, Brussels 1876, 389–451.

  12. Colón [4:16], 531.

  13. Martyr [1:2], 2, 35; “es más duro que el diamante.”

  14. Martyr [1:2], 2, 103.

  15. This is well described in Liss [2:42], 355.

  16. Martyr [1:2], 2, 1.

  17. Santa Marina del Rey, Astorga, Ponferrada, Villafranca de Valcarcel (May 21–June 4), Ponferrada again, Matilla de Arzón, Santa Marta, Rionegro, and Asturianos.

  18. See Martyr for a firsthand account [1:2], 2, 139–40. There is a dramatic picture of the meeting painted by an anonymous artist, now in the possession of a descendant of a cupbearer to Philip, in the Château de la Follie, Ecaussines d’enghien, Belgium. See the illustration to this book in the first plate section.

  19. See Manuel Fernández Álvarez, Carlos V, el César y el Hombre, Madrid 1999, 81 and fn 20.

  20. Rumeu [2:2], 325.

  21. Pastor [1:7], 8, 9.

  22. Martyr [1:2], 2, 100. For his imprisonment, see the same, 106.

  23. Gil [3:37], 1, 232.

  24. See Ruiz-Domènec [3:20], 401–16; John M. Headley, The Emperor and His Chancellor, Cambridge 1983, 74. There was also a secretary and, in the reign of Charles V, a third regent was found, the Neapolitan jurist Sigismundo Loffredo.

  25. Fernández Álvarez [2:42], 139.

  26. Martyr [1:2], 2, 83–84.

  27. Fernández Álvarez [2:42], 210.

  28. As usual, a vivid description can be found in Martyr [1:2], 2, 163 and 173.

  29. Hamilton [3:8], 320. The figures were precisely 247.6 instead of 87.9. Olive oil prices doubled in those six years also: 155 ms. in 1501, 310 in 1507.

  30. Otte [16:38], 142. Prominent among the importers was a Florentine, Pietro Bartolini, on behalf of his compatriot, Piero Rondinelli.

  31. Other names included Luca Battista Adorno, Silvestre de Brine, Manuel Cisbón, Bernardo Pinello, Simone Fornari, Gaspare and Francesco Sauli, Stefano Gustiniano, Donatino Marini, and Ambrosio Spinola.

  32. Otte [16:38], 176.

  33. Rumeu [2:2], 340.

  34. Martyr [1:2], 2, 202.

  35. Pastor [1:7], 6, 291.

  36. Rumeu [2:2], 336.

  37. Martyr [1:2], 2, 213.

  38. In the interim, Margaret briefly married Philibert of Savoy, who died young in much the same way that Philip had died, drinking too much water after exercise.

  39. Schäfer [9:19], 1, 29–30.

  40. “Supplico,” with two p’s, interestingly, à l’italien.

  41. Colón [4:16], 528.

  42. Fernando Colón [4:40], 284.

  43. Colón [4:16], 532.

  44. At the time of writing, it seems possible that a DNA test will be carried out to give precise knowledge of where the body is. For Columbus’s finances, see Juan Gil, “Las Cuentas de Cristóbal Colón,” AEA, 41, 1984, 425ff.

  45. Cristóbal Colón, Libro de las Profecías, Madrid 1992, 7.

  46. Navarrete [4:38], 1, 492.

  47. Navarrete [4:38], 1, 494.

  Chapter 18

  1. Serrano y Sanz [5:15], 48fn, 11.

  2. CDI, 31, 233–37.

  3. “islas inútiles de las que ningun provecho se espera.”

  4. Pérez de Tudela [9:39], 227.

  5. Pérez de Tudela [9:39], 228.

  6. Las Casas [2:50], 2, 340.

  7. CDI, 31, 214–15.

  8. CDI, 31, 216, and April 30, 1508, in CDIU, 5, 138.

  9. For the birth of Ponce de León, see Vicente Murga Sanz, Juan Ponce de León, San Juan 1971.

  10. For this campaign, see Las Casas [2:50], 2, 266–68.

  11. See Elliott [1:25], 67–68.

  12. AGI, Indif. Gen, leg. 418, f. 142 sig. Toro, Dec. 27, 1504, qu. Lamb [13:74], 184.

  13. Otte [16:38], 251.

  14. Oviedo [2:43], 1, 78.

  15. AGI, Contratación, leg. 4674, lib. manual de Sancho de Matienzo, 1, f. 59r, cit. Juan Gil (ed.), El libro Greco-Latino en su influencia en las Indias.

  16. The only copy of this first edition is in the British Library in London—appropriately, since many of the scenes are played out in a mysterious kingdom that did not then exist: “Great Britain.”

  17. See Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry, Cambridge 1920, and Irving Leonard, Books of the Brave [3:34]. The introduction by Rolena Adorno to the latter edition is a model of political correctness. But that of Juan Bautista Avalle-Arce to his edition of Amadís [5:5] is excellent.

  18. Leonard [3:34], 25.

  19. Qu. Leonard [3:34], 44.

  20. Leonard [3:34], 24.

  21. La Vida de Santa Teresa de Jesús, BAE, Madrid, 2 vols., 1861, vol. 1, 24. The passage is deservedly famous: “Era aficionado á libros de caballerías y no tan malo tomaba este pasatiempo, como yo lo tomé para mi; porque no perdía su labor, sin desenvoliémonos para leer en ellos.…”

  22. Bernal [12:31], 178.

  23. Ibid.

  24. Qu. Lamb [13:74], 156.

  25. AGI, Contratación, leg. 4674, f. 75.

  26. AGI, Indif. Gen., leg. 418, tomo I, f. 180v (Segovia, Sept. 15, 1505), qu. Lamb [13:74], 178.

  27. AGI, Indif. Gen., leg. 418, ff, 181v–183, r., qu. Pérez de Tudela [9:39], 229: “Paresceme que se deben enviar a conplimiento de cien esclavos negros.”

  28. Ironically that was also the year when the Laocoön, the sculpture of the strangling by serpents of the priest of Troy by a first-century sculptor from Rhodes, was found in a Roman vineyard belonging to Felice di’ Freddi, in what had been the Baths of Titus. Pope Julius sent his favorite architect, the Florentine Giuliano Sangallo, to look at it, which he did, accompanied by Michelangelo, and by Sangallo’s son, aged nine. The son recalled that his father immediately said: “This is the Laocoön mentioned by Pliny.…” The Pope bought it and installed it in the Belvedere. It was felt to be “the most perfect embodiment of the life and spirit of the ancient world that had yet been seen” (Pastor [1:7], 6, 489). It influenced Raphael, Michelangelo, and Bramante. Lessing made it the theme of his essay that discussed the difference between poetry and the fine arts (1766). Thus two worlds would change in the same year, but only the Roman one was noticed.

  29. AGI, Contratación 4674, f. 91, r., qu. Pérez de Tudela [9:39], 229; Martyr [6:34], 109.

  30. Earl Hamilton [3:8], 42.

  31. See the Residencia vs. Ovando, where there were many questions such as question 14: “Si saben que en traerse muchos ganados a esta ysla ansy vacas como ovejas rescibe gran bien la ysla e mucho serv
icio Dios y su Alteza…,” which received such answers as “Es notorio en esta ysla … los ganados se multiplan mucho en ella.…”

  32. Lamb [13:74], 172–73.

  33. The King’s letter was of Sept. 15, 1505. See Pérez de Tudela [9:39], 334, and Lewis Hanke, All Mankind Is One, De Kalb, IL, 1974, 10.

  34. In Residencia vs. Ovando: “No cumplía las cartas que sus Altezas enviaban para que se diesen indios a algunas personas e que no trataban bien a los buenos. Los moços de los moços de los cocineros tienen indios en muchas cantidad.”

  35. See the entry on Cortés in my Quién es quién en la conquista de México, Barcelona 2001.

  36. Pasamonte had been named to his post by Conchillos, who always tried to look after the interests of fellow Aragonese. But he had worked for the King, whom he had accompanied to Naples, whence he was called back in 1506. He was a controversial individual. But Las Casas, no friend of mendacity, wrote of him that he was “a man of wisdom, prudence, experience and authority, honest and had the reputation of having been chaste [casto] all his life” ([2:50], 2, 345–46).

  37. CDI, 26, 248.

  38. Navarrete [4:38], 1, 495: “he mandado al almirante de las Indias que vaya con poder a residir y estar en las dichas Indias a entender en la gobernacion dellas, segun el dicho poder sera contenido hase de entender que el dicho cargo y poder ha de ser sin perjuicio del derecho de ninguna de las partes.”

  39. Navarrete [4:38], 1, 495–97; see also Ida Altman, “Spanish Hidalgos and America: The Ovandos of Cáceres,” The Americas, 43, 3, 1957, 323ff. The King addressed “los concejos, justicias, y regidores, caballeros, escuderos, oficiales e homes buenos de todas las islas, Indias [sic] e tierra firme del mar oceano e a cada uno de vos salud e gracia.”

  40. García Gallo, in Fernando el Católico, pensamiento político [1:22], 154.

  41. Consuelo Varela [4:14], 116.

  Chapter 19

  1. Rouse [8:13], 17.

  2. CDI, 31, 309ff.; Navarrete [4:38], 2, 78. For Puerto Rico, see two volumes of documents ed. by Mgr. Vicente Murga Sanz: first, Puerto Rico en los manuscritos de Don Juan Bautista Muñoz, San Juan 1960, and second, Cédulario Puertorriqueño, Río Piedras 1961. Also see Aurelio Tío, Nuevas Fuentes para la historia de Puerto Rico, San Germán 1961, and Murga Sanz [18:9], 3–5.