Turkeys and maize originated in America and reached Europe from two directions: from China then the Silk Road to Turkey (here the words are granoturco (maize) and turco (turkey) – the names in Italy and England); and brought back by Spaniards (the word in France for turkey is dindon – de l’Inde).
The fulvous tree duck is a poor flyer found in Brazil but which originally came from India (Bengal): irere (Brazil and Guyana), sarere (Burma), sarara (India).
American Indian names that are Chinese (Martin Tai): on his arrival, Columbus met Indians = Yin Dian (people from Yin [China]); Pizarro, Inca = Yinca (people who live in Yin); Vancouver, Inuit = Yin Uit (people originating in Yin).
5. Accounts of contemporary and other historians
6. Shipwrecks
Large shipwrecks with ‘Chinese’ characteristics found in the wake of the Chinese fleets by European explorers
The following are wrecks identified by magnetic anomaly survey. Permission is being requested from the relevant authorities to carry out corroborative testing using different types of equipment.
‘Chinese’ anchors and fishing gear Indian Ocean/Far East/Pacific: Chinese ‘butterfly’ fishing nets throughout.
California: stone anchors in San Pedro Bay, Redondo Beach, Palos Verdes, central Los Angeles (under subway); Santa Barbara – fish hooks. (Barnacles dated pre-Columbian radio-metric dating. Professor Lin Xiao Han of Beijing.)
Ecuador: fish hooks and labrets.
Australia, Arnhem Land and Gulf of Carpenteria: anchors, fish hooks.
Mexico: Rio Balsas – butterfly fishing nets; Yucatán (Chinese? anchor used for worship).
7. Chinese porcelain/ceramics found in wake of Zheng He’s fleets
Indian Ocean and East Africa: early Ming porcelain found by first European explorers in palaces of rulers the length of the east African coast from Djibouti to Sofala and inland as far as Zimbabwe (Philip Snow/Martin Tai evidence); Mauritius – Celadon
North America, Pacific coast
Oregon: the Netarts sand spit (Site 35-Ti) – including some of Zhu Di’s reign
California: dates to be confirmed
Canada, Vancouver Island (BC): Chinese clay vase (B. Morelan); Chinese storage jars from seabed (Tofino) (Hector Williams)
Washington State: (Ken Holmes and Sean Griffin); Lake River Potters – Washington coast (R Hassell)
Central and South America
Mexico, Zihuantanejo
Peru: Ica, Chan Chan, Miraflores – Tai chih symbols
Amazonia: (Paul Yih and Beloit University, Wisconsin)
Australia: Bradshaw, Elecho Island, Yirrkalla, Winchelsea Island, Cape York, Gympie, Tasmania.
Pacific: Magellan’s descriptions of rulers dressed in silk, eating off Ming porcelain from Leyte to Spice Islands.
8. Pre-Columbian Chinese jade found in wake of Zheng He’s fleets
Amazon/Tapajos River juncture (Barbosa Rodrigues): Trombetas River; Lago Sapakua; Lago de Faro; Serra da Chinella (Hill of Chinese); unnamed island; Ilha Jacinta; Costa do Parvo; Villa de Faro; Rio Yamunda; Cujumu
Elsewhere in Brazil (Barbosa Rodrigues): Amargosa (BA); Campanas (SP); Pivi (MG); Pinheiros (RJ); Olinda (PE); Obidos (AM); São Francisco River
Argentina: (Barbosa Rodrigues and Palmatory)
Colombia: (Barbosa Rodrigues and Palmatory)
Panama: (Barbosa Rodrigues and Palmatory)
Costa Rica: (A131; P2698)
Guatemala (border El Salvador): figurines (BN139)
Mexico: Teotihuacan; Isthmus of Tehuantepec; Chiapas de Corzo; La Venta (L273; K094; M342C; L240; W154; P269B)
Nicaragua (A131; P269B)
North America: Georgia (Nacooche Mound); Michigan Mound (P269B)
Cuba: (Barbosa Rodrigues and Palmatory)
Virgin Islands: (Barbosa Rodrigues and Palmatory)
Canada, British Columbia: (C405; H070); Shu Lao Buddha lamp
Australia: Darwin – Shu Lao; NSW – Ganesh, Hanuman; Queensland – Buddha; Gympie – orange-coloured jade belt buckle, carved monkey/bear/animal and blue jade necklace (Brett Green)
New Zealand: Ruapuke Beach – korotangi duck; Mauku – Mongol warrior
Pacific/Polynesia: to follow
Galapagos: (Barbosa Rodrigues and Palmatory)
Peru: mummy – Mongolian features with jade necklace (Lima Museum) (Loayza)
9. Artefacts, gems and votive offerings found in wake of Zheng He’s fleets
Far East and Indian Ocean: all over the area, too numerous to mention
Africa: Pate – bronze lion
Atlantic and Caribbean: Azores – Corvo statue of rider on horseback; Bimini – marble head
Meso and Central America
Mexico: lacquer boxes, Roman bust (Joluca), dyestuffs, Jucutácato shroud, copper ornaments, Chinese vases (Azacapotazlo and Hue Hutitlan); little Chinaman (Teotihuacan), terracotta figurines of SE Asian people (Niven); Chinese bronzes (Romeo Hristov); Chinese totems (I. B. Remsen).
North America (Pacific coast)
Washington: ceramic artefacts, Lake River (Terry Glavin, The Last Great Sea)
British Columbia: carved totem faces (Wu Han), ‘Chinese’ lamp, votive offerings, Shu Lao, sackfuls of Chinese coins, Buddhist statuette, Korean burial urn (R. Hassell)
California: early Ming brass plate (A. D. Palmer), Avalon Harbour treasure box (Steve Haynes), stone with Chinese writing (Steve Elkins)
Arizona, Grand Canyon: statuettes of Buddha (Jake Smothers) Colorado, Granby Dam: ‘guardian’ statue with Chinese inscriptions (Thad Daly)
South America
Peru: bronzes with Chinese inscriptions (Trujillo), pottery with Chinese inscriptions (Nasca), figurines with Chinese inscriptions, e.g. Tai-chi, silver idol with Chinese inscriptions (Trujillo) and clay figurines.
Brazil, Surui: gems (Paul Yih)
Australia
NSW: onyx scarab, Shao Lin’s head, stone heads
Queensland: Hanuman, Ganesh, onyx scarab
Arnhem Land: figurine of Shu Lao
Pacific
Hua Atoll (Tuomotu Archipelago): emerald ring
Hawaii: helmet and iron weapons (there is no iron in Hawaii)
New Zealand: two lions (Brett Green)
10. Stone buildings or artefacts found in wake of Zheng He’s fleets
Observation platforms and observatories Australia (5): Penrith; west of Blue Mountains; Gympie; central NSW coast; Atherton
North Atlantic: Newport round tower (mortar contains gypsum, foreign to area); Canaries
Arctic – Kane basin
Pacific – Tuomotu (Tahiti); Marquesas; Society Islands; Carolines – Lele, Ponape, Nan Madol, Yap, Tobi; Marianas – Saipan; Gilberts – Kiribati; Solomons – San Cristobal; Mala; New Guinea (5); Malden Island; Magnetic Island; Samoa (Jenny Gore evidence)
North America: Casa Grande (Grand Canyon) (J. Andrews)
Note: An analysis of the mortar of as many of these platforms as possible will be conducted; results will be posted on the website.
Carved stones recording voyage
China – Liu Shia Chang (Fukien province); Lingshan Mountain (Quanzhow); Malaya – Malacca; Thailand; Ceylon – Dondra Head; India – Guli, Calicut, Cochin; Africa – Matadi Falls (Congo); Cape Verde Islands (Janela); South America – Santa Catarina; New Zealand – Ruapuke Beach and South Island; North America – Dighton Rock and McCook Point (B. Trinque); American Pacific coast – ‘Sacramento stone’?
Stone markers to denote position
North America (South Peabody, Royaston, Barre, Shutesbury, Chelmsford, Upton, Concord, Waltham, Carlisle, Acton, Lynn, Cohasset, Newport, California), Newfoundland, Labrador, Kane Basin, Outer Hebrides?, Patagonia – S Julien (Darwin), British Columbia coast, Queen Charlotte Island (Margo Donovan evidence).
Miscellaneous stone dwellings
North America: Narraganset Beach, ruins of village
High Arctic: Newfoundland, Labrador, Kane Basin
Australia: Newcastle, Sydney
California: east of San Francisco Bay (Chinese village)
Azores: Corvo (on beach)
Peru: the great wall of Chimu (compare with Vietnam) – 40 miles long near Chan-Chan; Quinoa subterranean palace (Geographical Review, vol. XXIII, 1932)
Mexico: Teotihuacan, inscribed rocks (Professor Niven)
Vietnam: great wall of Vietnam (evidence Ms Fran, Kunming Conference, 2002)
British Columbia/Washington State: submerged village Mississippi (44°10′N 93°W), circular fortress (to house 5,000 men)
The Newport Round Tower – astronomical alignments
Carbon dating of tower now puts earliest date as 1410. Professor William S. Penhallow, Professor Emeritus of Physics, University of Rhode Island, has concluded the tower is a cylinder with arches sitting on eight pillars whose windows are cut so as to enable astronomical sightings (in 3D) of the sun, moon, Polaris and Dubhe (Ursa Major) at spring equinox and winter solstice. Everything required to determine longitude by an eclipse of the moon is found in the alignment of the windows. A structure north-east of the tower has been located (gnomon line?) and is being investigated. The author has requested an analysis of the mortar of the tower to see whether it contains rice flour, an ingredient used by the Chinese to add strength to mortar. Results will be posted on website.
Stone dams and fishponds
Hawaii: (M Armstrong) Menehune (Oahu)
Virginia: (J Warsing) Wyoming County – forts, dams
New Zealand (South Island): (Fletcher)
Westport, Mass.: (Jean Elder)
Fiji, Alof islet: (Fortune) – mariner’s mirror (14°15′S 178°10′W)
Carved stone artwork
Easter Island: Chinese lion’s head (Kerson Huang)
Honan: Chinese lion head (T. Brooks)
Bali: Chinese lion head
Yucatán: Mayan gargoyles – serpents (Alan Moks); carvings on temple wall in Chinese (R. Wertz); Phaspa writing (R. Wertz); elephants; Chinese heron
Copan: Chinese heron (Dean Dey); lion’s head (Dean Dey); Chinese man with moustache (Mrazekts)
Guatemala, La Democracia: carved Chinese stones (C. Skinner)
Massachusetts: carved Buddha (Shutesbury)
California: sculpture (C. Marschner); carved stone with Chinese writing (Steve Elkins)
Slipways
Bimini North Island, Bahamas): hull ballast and slipway, walls (Andros); Bimini Road (B. Swinley)
Anguilla, Bahamas: (Bruce, Andros) harbour (Charles Huegy)
Factories/wells
Malacca (Ta Tan Sen)
Barrack blocks
Note: standard block = 40 × 30 metres
If each barrack block housed 64 people and 293 located, then at least 18,752 sailors and/or concubines survived – see Shipwrecks 38 to 77. But there are no barracks for wrecks 75 to 77 comprising two Resolution and one Vanguard class – another 3,000 people, viz. at least 22,000 men sailed with this fleet.
11. Mining operations found by Europeans when they reached the New World
Australia: gold (Gympie); lead, uranium (Arnhem Land) (J. Green)
Fiji: copper (Lasawa)
Arctic: smelted bronze, iron, copper (Devon Island and Bathurst Island)
North America: coal (Newport Island to Greenland); St Peter’s River (Minay Sotor); Cherokee country east coast (Scott McLean), Chinese miners
Mexico: copper and gold
Canada: jadeite (British Columbia)
New Zealand: antimony, iron and gold (Cedric Bell)
12. Advanced technologies found by first Europeans
Mexico: extraction of dyestuffs from insects, roots, leaves, barks, identical to Chinese processes; lacquer and boxes using complicated technology identical to Chinese methods; mirror manufacture very similar to Lamaist designs; copper technology similar to Chinese Aztec papermaking; metal working (Gary Jennings, Howard Smith)
South America: Inca cotton; Inca roads using cement – road systems more extensive than those of Rome
13. Plants indigenous to one continent found on another by early European explorers
(i) From China to:
Australia – lotuses and papyrus
North America – rice, poppy seeds, keteleria, roses (R. Laevigata), hibiscus (Rosa sinensis) (Dr Tan Koolin); Monterey pines (California) (Bruce Tickell Taylor/Sandy Lydon)
Pacific islands – mulberries, hibiscus (Rosa sinensis)
Amazon (Goyaz)– rice (Paraguayan Chaco (C229))
Mexico – rice, hibiscus (Rosa sinensis – Mexican national flower) (Secret Journal)
Malaysia – Rosa sinensis (Malaysian national flower)
Brazil – oats (Svetlana)
USA, Virginia – mulberry trees, honeywort, Paulownia tomentosae trees (Pallowaddies), ‘Yellow Delicious’ apples (J. Warsing)
From Tropical Asia to:
Pacific Islands – taro, yam, banana, turmeric, bottle gourds
Amazon – bananas
New Zealand – taro, yam (Captain Cook)
From Malaysia to:
Pacific Islands – arrowroot (pia)
China – rubber (damar), pepper (Ma Huan)
From India to:
China – cotton
North Pacific islands – sugar cane, wild ginger
North and Central America – cotton (via China)
North Africa and Cape Verde Islands – cotton (from China and America)
Marquesas (and across the world) – 26 chromosome cotton
Pacific islands – cotton
Brazil – sugar cane
From Africa to:
Central Pacific – bottle gourds
Puerto Rico – coffee
Brazil – root crops
From South America to:
China – maize
South-east Asia – maize
New Zealand – kumera
Pacific islands – yams, sweet potato
Australia – separate list of 74 items
Philippines – potatoes, maize (and metates)
South America – rice, bananas, sugar cane, coconuts, root crops
From South Pacific to:
North Pacific (Hawaii) – bamboo, coconuts, kava, candlenut tree, hibiscus
Central America (Pacific coast) – coconuts
Brazil – coconuts
Puerto Rico – coconuts
From Norfolk Island to:
Campbell Island – Norfolk pines
From Indonesia to:
China – spice
From Spice Islands to:
China – pepper
From North America to:
China – maize, amaranth
New Zealand – Chenopodium album (Durdock Riley, Dave Bell), discovered by Cook, 1769; marsh cress (Navajo cosmetic)
From Mexico to:
Philippines – tobacco, sweet potatoes, maize seen by Magellan (first European); possibly pineapple, arrowroot, peanut, lima and yam beans, balimbing, cassava, chico, papaya, zapute, tomato and squash (Magellan does not record seeing these)
India and SE Africa - cochineal
To South America (Amazonia):
Rice
Bananas
Sugar cane
Coconuts
Root crops
(ii) Found in Hawaii by early European explorers
from Tropical America – sweet potatoes
from India – wild ginger
from Pacific islands – bamboo, breadfruit, candlenut trees, hibiscus, kava
from Tropical Asia – taro, ti plants, yam (five-leafed), banana, turmeric
from Malayan Archipelago – arrowroot
from east Asia – paper, mulberry
(iii) Found on Easter Island before early European explorers
from South America – totora reeds (originally from Egypt), tomato, tobacco, sweet potato, 26 chromosome cotton.
South Pacific – coconuts
SE Asia – yam
Mesoamerica – papaya
(iv) Found in New Zealand by early European explorers
from South America – kumara
from Colombia – ‘scented grass’
from Asia – dove’s foot geranium
from China – taro
from North America – Chenopodium album and marsh cress
(v) Tobacco: pre-Columbian dispersion
From America to:
India (A176)
Australia, Indonesia, New Guinea, Melanesia (F027)
Africa (before 1525) (J058B)
New Guinea (L194)
(vi) Californian trees
San Diego County Park: markings on trees cut by Chinese explorers (Esther Daniels)
(vii) Shell mounds on uninhabited islands which the Chinese passed
Caribbean (Bimini)
Pacific: Kuriles, Aleutians, Kamchatka, Chuchoi
New Zealand (Cedric and Dave Bell)
14. Animals indigenous to one continent found on another by early European explorers
Asiatic chickens in South America. The chickens found by the Spanish and Portuguese arriving in South America were entirely different from those they had left at home. Amerind chickens laid blue-shelled eggs, had Asiatic names and were not used for food – rather for religious practices. They had different combs, feathers, spurs, sizes, shapes, legs, necks and heads and names – Malayan, Melanotic silkies, frizzle fowls and Cochin Chinese. As late as 1600 Mediterranean peoples did not have and did not know of the galaxy of Asiatic chickens found in the Americas. Asiatic chickens cannot fly; someone took them to the Americas before Europeans got there. (See Acosta for South America, Coronado for Tiguex.) (Evidence from William Goggins.)
1421: The Year China Discovered the World Page 41
