An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural

by James Randi

  In 1926, Rhine became acquainted with Dr. William McDougall, and the next year he left botany behind him and began to study paranormal claims. On one of his first investigations, Rhine discovered the medium Margery Crandon in fraud, and when he reported that fact, he was castigated by Conan Doyle and the other leaders of the spiritualists.

  By 1930, Rhine and McDougall had begun studies at a psychology lab at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. A colleague, Dr. Karl Zener, developed the set of five-symbol cards now known as Zener cards, for Rhine to use in testing psychic powers. By 1935, Rhine had established the Duke University Parapsychology Laboratory at Durham.

  Dr. Rhine invented the term extrasensory perception (ESP) in one of his first books on the subject. He and his wife, Dr. Louisa Rhine, became known as the paramount experts on the subject of ESP.

  Though there are in the literature many impressive reports of Rhine's successes with “gifted” subjects, it later developed that he had allowed himself to ignore much of the data he gathered, reporting the positive results and ignoring the failures. Very early in his career, he had been taken in by a “telepathic” horse named Lady Wonder, much to the embarrassment of his colleagues.

  The final blow to Rhine occurred when Dr. Walter Levy, a trusted colleague at the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man (FRNM), a private organization established by Rhine in 1962, was discovered to be cheating on an impressive animal-ESP test that had been reported as a huge success. Levy confessed and was fired.

  At this point in time, Rhine's work, though pioneering and well intentioned, is not looked upon as definitive in any way. His understandable errors, given his lack of sophistication in handling and understanding people, give ample reason for rejecting his conclusions. As with all the exciting breakthroughs regularly announced by parapsychologists, flaws developed that put the work beyond serious acceptance.

  Unlike some research projects in parapsychology, no hint of dishonesty on Rhine's part has ever been seriously suggested, though it may be that a certain amount of trickery was introduced into his lab without his knowledge. Though proponents of ESP are fond of quoting the immense odds against success in ESP tests by chance alone, those figures mean nothing at all if the experiments are not properly conducted.

  See also Lady Wonder and Dr. Walter Levy.

  Rhine, Dr. Louisa Ella

  (1891-1983) Née Weckesser, Mrs. Rhine was the wife of Dr. Joseph Banks Rhine and was his closest collaborator. From the time of their marriage in 1920, when they were both students of biology at the University of Chicago, they worked together on developing test procedures and amassing data on ESP. Mrs. Rhine contributed many books to the study of psi, including ESP in Life and Lab: Tracing Hidden Channels, Hidden Channels of the Mind, Mind Over Matter (one of at least eleven books that have borne this title), Psi: What Is It? and The Invisible Picture.

  Richet, Dr. Charles

  (1850-1935) Richet was one of the most influential and important scientists who endorsed the claims of the spirit mediums. He was a Nobel laureate (1913, in physiology and medicine).

  Though his accounts of sittings with such mediums as Eva C. and William Eglinton appear rather naive today, they were taken as proof by his readers of the period. He wrote that the reality of “[spiritual] materialization is as certainly established as any fact in science.” However, Richet was not at all convinced by the performances of medium Eusapia Palladino, whom he also witnessed.

  Roberts, Jane

  See Seth.

  Roll, William G.

  A parapsychologist associated with the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man (FRNM), in Durham, North Carolina. He has specialized in the study of poltergeist phenomena and is the author of The Poltergeist (Nelson-Doubleday 1972).

  See also Columbus poltergeist.

  Romany

  See Gypsy.

  Rosicrucians

  A mystical order said to have been started by Christian Rosenkreutz (1378-1484?) whose name translates as “Rosy Cross.”

  Very little is actually known about the origins of the group, though the modern Rosicrucians claim to be direct inheritors of the original purposes and philosophy. It appears to have an anti-Catholic outlook.

  The Rosicrucian order first came to the attention of the world in Paris in 1623, when anonymous leaflets were distributed around the city announcing the “invisible college” that had materialized there. It is perhaps no coincidence that a new booklet titled Fama Fraternitatis dealing with the life of the previously-unknown Christian Rosenkreutz had just been published by a Paris bookseller.

  A modern revival, the Ancient and Mystical Order of the Rosy Cross (AMORC) was begun in 1909 by H. Spencer Lewis, an advertising man in California. Lewis actually purported to change zinc into gold during a demonstration of alchemy before the press in 1916.

  AMORC continues today, operating from its base in San Jose, California, home of Rose-Croix University, complete with an Egyptian museum, sphinxes, a planetarium, and classrooms for studying science and parapsychology. The movement has advertised in every sort of magazine and newspaper, a major departure from the original “invisible college,” and teaches such subjects as universal peace, harmony, willpower, and wisdom.

  As with many political and religious groups, this sort of promise appeals to persons who feel alone and withdrawn from the world around them. It gives them a rather exclusive peer group, with a membership card, secret handshake, and secret passwords. Followers are told that they will develop exotic psychic powers and insights after studying — in person or by mail — the lessons offered. Much of the idea and theory being taught is based on alchemy.

  Royal Touch

  Part of the tradition of divine healing through the touch of special persons is validated from scriptural references to such healings by Christ and the disciples and in direct instruction from Christ to his disciples in Matthew 10:8:

  Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, cast out devils.

  European royalty decided that because they claimed to rule by divine right they could also claim to have the divine ability to heal. As early as 1307, people in need of healing were visiting Philip the Fair, King of France, for his holy touch. Soon, beginning with Edward the Confessor (ruled 1042-1066) the English kings were “touching” for scrofula, a tubercular inflammation of the lymph nodes often confused with similar afflictions of the face and eyes. Thus originated the “royal touch,” which was said to be effective against this condition, and the disease became known in those days as the “king's evil.” The last person said to have been “touched” in England was Dr. Samuel Johnson, in 1712, by queen Anne. He was only thirty months old, so could not have known better than to participate.

  The presence and involvement of kings doubtless had an effect upon people with psychosomatic and quite imaginary ailments, and subjects eagerly provided affidavits to the monarchs in support of strong belief in this sort of healing.

  In the eighteenth century, the Earl of Chesterfield took it up, much to the embarrassment of his friends.

  Runes

  A general term applied to a form of sticklike writing found on stones in Germany, Denmark and Southern Sweden, and to some degree Iceland, the regions where the inscriptions gained the greatest importance and where most are found. The oldest runic inscription found in Denmark dates from around 400 AD.

  Probably because of the primitive flavor of the symbols, magical qualities have been ascribed to them. However, runes were used for many practical purposes by warriors and merchants. Some were written on large standing stones to commemorate the death of a son, erected in honor of the dead person who, according to the same inscription, might have been buried in a foreign country. It seems that the most important function of such a stone was to inform the world that the person who erected it, would inherit the position of the deceased.

  Runes are often used by today's mystics in performing divination. The letters are inscribed on wooden blocks, which are then thrown
like dice to come up with random words that can then be “interpreted.” Students of runes, about fifty years ago, wrote and published books on the subject that could easily compete with the weirdest kabala weirdo's output, but today no serious student believes such nonsense. One reason for this return to sanity is that the runologists found they had to discover more and more “sacred” numbers, and if the number wasn't “holy,” perhaps if you split it — for instance eleven into four and seven — so you'd get at least one holy number. In the end, it all became ludicrous and few runologists today can talk about their science without blushing when “holy runes” are mentioned.

  Runic writing has reportedly been found in the New World, though it is highly doubtful that any of this material is genuine.

  Russell, Charles Taze

  See Jehovah's Witnesses.

  S

  Sabbat

  An assembly of witches and wizards, held every three months on February 2, Walpurgis Night (May Day Eve), Midsummer's Eve, and November Eve. Anointed with the appropriate substance made of the fat of murdered (preferably unbaptized) children, and using belladonna and aconite (see also flying and ointment) the attendees arrive flying on goats, broomsticks, rakes, and other unlikely conveyances. Satan himself presides, often in the form of a crow, cat, or goat. Nakedness is the accepted costume for the occasion.

  Sai Baba

  (Sri Satya Sai Baba, 1926- ). The word baba is derived from the Turkish word for “papa.” Born Sathyanarayana Ratnakaru Raju, this modern Indian yogi has a large following all over the world, among them Harry Saltzman, producer of the James Bond films. His organization is ruled from his ashram Prasanti Nilayam (meaning “abode of great peace”) at Puttaparti. He claims to be the reincarnation of Sai Baba of Shirdi (1856-1916).

  His followers claim that he can produce vibhuti (“holy ash”), gold rings, and even modern Seiko wristwatches for them by simply reaching into the air. There are claims that he has raised the dead, levitated, healed cancer, and even done his version of the loaves-and-fishes miracle. These are referred to as siddhis.

  Examination of films and videotapes of Sai Baba's actual performances show them to be simple sleight of hand, exactly the same as the sort used by the other Indian jaduwallahs, or “street conjurors.” Sai Baba has never submitted to an examination of his abilities under controls, so his claims are totally unproven. Parsimony applies here.

  India's leading debunker of the claims of the god-men who infest that country, the famous Premaland, has duplicated all of Sai Baba's tricks and tours the world demonstrating these feats.

  Saint Elmo's fire

  Named after Saint Erasmus (a corruption of the name), patron saint of Mediterranean sailors, this is a natural high-voltage effect sometimes seen on the mast and spars of a sailing ship during calms, considered to be a benevolent warning of an impending storm. Blue halos in the form of flamelike discharges are seen at the tips of the rigging and are due to charges between the earth (water) and the atmosphere leaking off into the surrounding air.

  See also Kirlian photography.

  Saint Germain, Claude Louis, Compte de

  (1710?-1784) Attached to the court of Louis XV of France, Saint Germain claimed he was two thousand years old. More sober, but not more convincing sources put his age at either 188 or 223 when he died in 1784.

  It was believed that he had mastered alchemy in all its facets, could make himself invisible, knew the secret of eternal life, and could speak all languages. He said he'd known Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.

  British author Horace Walpole (1717-1779) reported that Saint Germain was in London in 1743, after which he was in France in the service of Louis. In France he had some political problems and fled to St. Petersburg. In Germany he claimed to have founded freemasonry and to have initiated Cagliostro into that brotherhood.

  An amusing anecdote about Saint Germain has survived: Since he claimed to have discovered the secret of immortality, his valet also claimed to share that treasured knowledge with him. When asked by a visitor whether it was true, as his master had claimed, that he'd been present at the marriage at Cana in Galilee when Jesus Christ turned water into wine (John 2:1), the valet responded, “You forget, sir, that I have only been in the Comte's service for a century.”

  The Rosicrucians claim that Saint Germain is still alive and that he was once known as Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626).

  Saint Joseph of Copertino

  A monk who is reputed to have flown forty feet from the middle of a church to the high altar. Doubtful.

  See also flying.

  Saint Malachy's prophecies St. Malachy

  (1094-1148) was an Irish Benedictine bishop who is said to have predicted, by means of brief phrases for each one, a characteristic feature of the reign of every Roman Catholic pope, from the beginning of the papacy to the very end. A total of 112 popes were listed in what is believed to be his only publication, a book published by Benedictine friar Arnold Wion in the year 1590.

  Some of the predictions are obviously very general, as illustrated by the listing for Pope John XXIII (reigned 1958-1963): “Shepherd and navigator.” Since all popes are, by definition, figurative shepherds and are charged with directing the church, this fits any and all popes. Another prophecy, this one for Gregory X (reigned 1271-1276) designated him as “Man of the serpent” and his coat of arms featured a serpent. However, though most of the phrases published by Wion that refer to popes who reigned before he published are surprisingly accurate, those that follow are quite generalized.

  The suspicion is that the prophecies of St. Malachy were invented in Wion's time. The authenticity of the book has been doubted since the seventeenth century. Certainly St. Malachy had nothing to do with the prophecies.

  Wion's book calls for pope number 112, “Peter of Rome,” to be the last to reign. After that, it says, Rome “will be destroyed and the awful judge will pass judgement on his people.” John Paul II was pope number 110; Benedictus XVI is number 111.

  Salamander

  An elemental spirit of fire, or a lizard-like creature that was believed to be able to live in fire. Not in any way related to the innocent amphibian creature caudata, a legitimate entity, not in any way fireproof.

  See also fire-eating and fire walking.

  Salem witch trials

  The notion of witchcraft was first officially recognized in America in 1692 in the town of Salem, Massachusetts, when governor Sir William Phipps became aware of charges against several servants of African heritage. The situation rapidly escalated when the Mather family, fanatical Puritans, became involved.

  Increase Mather, president of Harvard College, and his son Cotton prosecuted huge numbers of accused witches, and the gallows were busy. The Mathers, according to historian Lewis Spence,

  displayed an extraordinary amount of ingenuity and an equally great lack of anything like sound judgement.

  Local children were encouraged to relate tales of wild orgies and evil deeds, and their stories were eagerly accepted as true.

  (This is very much the manner in which American children today are being mercilessly interrogated, sometimes over several months, and subjected to suggestions and leading questions about Satanic practices and sexual abuse, until they produce the stories that their inquisitors require of them. Adults who have been named in these procedures have been imprisoned and their lives ruined by the same methods in use three hundred years ago. Apparently we have not learned much in this respect in those three centuries. Things are not quite as bad today, however. In old Salem, anyone who even doubted the validity of witchcraft or of the guilt of those accused was also hanged. Today they are only looked upon as eccentrics.)

  In 1692, even pet dogs and cats were put on trial and executed for witchcraft. But when the Mathers eventually accused the wife of Governor Phipps of being a witch, Phipps began to have doubts about the wisdom of allowing things to get any worse, and he put an end to it.

  The Salem witch trials stand as one of the most di
sgraceful episodes in the history of America, yet there is still today a firm belief in the basic claims and procedures that continue to condemn innocent victims.

  Sasquatch

  See Abominable Snowman.

  Samhain