The Normans: From Raiders to Kings

by Lars Brownworth

  THE NORMANS

  From Raiders to Kings

  LARS BROWNWORTH

  The Normans: From Raiders to Kings

  First published in the United Kingdom in 2014 by Crux Publishing Ltd.

  ISBN: 978-1-909979-03-1

  Copyright © Lars Brownworth, 2014

  Lars Brownworth has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

  All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the non-exclusive, non-transferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, down-loaded, decompiled, reverse engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of Crux Publishing Ltd.

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  About the Author

  Lars Brownworth is an author, speaker, broadcaster, and teacher based in Maryland, USA. He has written for the Wall Street Journal and been profiled in the New York Times, who likened him to some of history’s great popularizers. His books include Lost to the West: The Forgotten Byzantine Empire that Rescued Western Civilization, and the forthcoming The Sea Wolves: A History of the Vikings.

  For more information about Lars, please visit www.larsbrownworth.com

  About the Book

  There is much more to the Norman story than the Battle of Hastings. These descendants of the Vikings who settled in France, England, and Italy - but were not strictly French, English, or Italian - played a large role in creating the modern world. They were the success story of the Middle Ages; a footloose band of individual adventurers who transformed the face of medieval Europe. During the course of two centuries they launched a series of extraordinary conquests, carving out kingdoms from the North Sea to the North African coast.

  In The Normans, author Lars Brownworth follows their story, from the first shock of a Viking raid on an Irish monastery to the exile of the last Norman Prince of Antioch. In the process he brings to vivid life the Norman tapestry’s rich cast of characters: figures like Rollo the Walker, William Iron-Arm, Tancred the Monkey King, and Robert Guiscard. It presents a fascinating glimpse of a time when a group of restless adventurers had the world at their fingertips.

  For Nils, whose curiosity provided the spark

  A Who’s Who of the Norman World

  Adelaide (c. 1075 - 1118) Third wife of Roger I and mother of Roger II. Regent for her son from 1101 - 1112

  Alexius Comnenus (c. 1056 - 1118) Byzantine emperor at the time of the First Crusade. Defeated attempts by Robert Guiscard and Bohemond I to invade the empire

  Bernard of Clairvaux (1090 - 1153) Cistercian Abbot and dominant figure of the early 12th century.

  Bohemond I (c. 1058 - 1111) Eldest son of Robert Guiscard; founded the Principality of Antioch

  Charles the Fat (839 - 888) Frankish king who attempted to stop Viking raids by allowing them to settle in Normandy

  Christodulus (d. 1131) First admiral of Norman Sicily under Roger II

  Constance (1154 - 1198) Sister of Roger II; inherited Sicily when William the Good died

  Count Roger (c. 1031 - 1101) Youngest of the Hauteville brothers; conquered Sicily and consolidated Norman rule of the island. Also known as the ‘Great Count’

  Drogo de Hauteville (c. 1010 - 1051) Younger brother of William Iron-Arm who succeeded him as Duke of Apulia and Calabria

  Edward the Confessor (c. 1003 - 1066) Anglo-Saxon king of England who died without a clear successor

  Emma (c. 985 - 1012) Sister of Duke Richard II; wife of Ethelred the Unready and mother of Edward the Confessor

  Ethelred the Unready (c. 968 - 1016) Anglo-Saxon king who tried to stop Viking raids by bribing them. Father of Edward the Confessor

  Frederick I Barbarossa (1122 - 1190) Holy Roman Emperor; invaded Italy in an attempt to conqueror Sicily

  Frederick II Barbarossa (1194 - 1250) Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily and Jerusalem; Son of Henry VI and grandson of Roger II. Nicknamed ‘the wonder of the world’.

  George Maniaces (d. 1043) Byzantine general who employed Norman mercenaries in an attempt to conquer Sicily

  George of Antioch (d. 1151/2) Succeeded Christodulus as admiral; helped establish a Norman presence in North Africa

  Godwin (Earl of Wessex, c. 1001 - 1053) Powerful advisor to Edward the Confessor and father of Tostig and Harold

  Gregory VII (c. 1015 - 1085) Reforming pope who offered Robert Guiscard legitimacy in exchange for protection against Henry IV

  Harald Hardrada (c. 1015 - 1066) Viking King of Norway; invaded England in 1066 and died at the Battle of Stamford Bridge

  Harold Godwinson (c. 1022 - 1066) Last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Killed by William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings

  Henry IV (1050 - 1106) Holy Roman Emperor who tried to invade Rome while Robert Guiscard was occupied by Byzantium

  Henry VI (1165 - 1197) Holy Roman Emperor and husband of Constance; conquered the Norman Kingdom of Sicily

  Maio of Bari (d. 1160) Favorite of William the Bad; most powerful figure in Sicily until his assassination

  Manuel Comnenus (1118 - 1180) Last strong Byzantine emperor of the 12th century; campaigned against Roger II

  Margaritus (1149 - 1197) Admiral of Sicily under William the Good; nicknamed ‘the new Neptune’

  Pope Leo IX (1002 - 1054) Led a great anti-Norman coalition to expel the Normans from southern Italy; captured by Robert Guiscard at the Battle of Civitate

  Pope Urban II (c. 1042 - 1099) Launched the First Crusade to recover Jerusalem for Christendom

  Raymond of Toulouse (c. 1041 - 1105) Main rival to Bohemond I for leadership of the First Crusade

  Richard the Fearless (933 - 996) Son of William Longsword; first Duke of Normandy

  Richard the Lionheart (1157 - 1199) Norman king of England who visited Sicily en route to the Third Crusade

  Richard II (c. 962 - 1026) Second Duke of Normandy; also known as ‘Richard the Good’

  Robert Guiscard (c. 1015 - 1085) Half-brother of Drogo; conquered much of southern Italy and was elected Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Known as ‘The Crafty’

  Robert the Devil (c. 1009 - 1035) Third Duke of Normandy, father of William the Conqueror

  Roger Borsa (c. 1060 - 1111) Legitimate but ineffectual son of Robert Guiscard; succeeded his father as Duke of Apulia and Calabria

  Roger II (1095 - 1154) First Norman king of Sicily; remembered as its greatest ruler

  Rollo (c. 860 - 931) Viking raider who founded Normandy

  Tancred de Hauteville (c. 980 - 1041) Poor Norman knight and founder of the Hauteville family; father of at least twelve sons including William Iron-Arm, Drogo, Robert Guiscard, and Count Roger

  Tancred of Galilee (1075 - 1112) Nephew of Bohemond I; regent of Antioch in Bohemond’s absence

  Tancred of Lecce (d. 1194) Last Norman ruler of Sicily; seized the kingdom when William the Good died. Nicknamed ‘the Monkey king’

  Tostig (c. 1026 - 1066) Younger brother of Ha
rold; killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge while attempting to return from exile

  William Iron-Arm (c. 1005 - 1046) Eldest of the Hauteville brothers; elected Duke of Apulia and Calabria

  William Longsword (c. 900 - 942) Son of Rollo; second ruler of Normandy

  William the Bad (1131 - 1166) Son of Roger II and second king of Sicily

  William the Conqueror (c. 1026 - 1087) Illegitimate son of Robert the Devil, conquered England in 1066

  William the Good (1155 - 1189) Third king and last legitimate Hauteville ruler of Sicily

  PLACES

  Aachen: Capital of the Holy Roman Empire

  Apulia: Region of southern Italy including the ‘heel’ of the peninsula. Became the center of Norman power under Robert Guiscard

  Byzantine Empire: (330 - 1453) The eastern half of the old Roman Empire

  Calabria: Region of southern Italy forming the ‘toe’ of the peninsula

  Constantinople: Capital of the Byzantine Empire

  Holy Roman Empire: (962 - 1806) Central European State that claimed to be the rebirth of the old Western Roman Empire. Despite its name it was based largely in modern day Germany

  Norman Kingdom of Sicily: (1130 - 1194) Founded by Roger II; included Sicily, the south of Italy, and parts of North Africa

  Palermo: Capital of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily

  Papal States: Collection of lands around Rome ruled directly by the pope. Often in conflict with its immediate neighbors, the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, and the Holy Roman Empire

  Principality of Antioch: (1098 - 1268) Crusader State based around the major city of Antioch; founded by Bohemond I during the First Crusade

  VARIOUS

  Battle of Civitate: (1053) Norman defeat of the armies of Pope Leo IX; resulted in papal recognition of Hauteville rule in southern Italy

  First Crusade: (1098) Launched by Pope Urban II to reclaim the Holy Lands from Islam

  Fourth Crusade: (1204) Venetian-led crusade which sacked Constantinople

  Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte: Agreement between Rollo and Charles the Simple that created Normandy

  Varangian Guard: Elite forces of the Byzantine army. Usually composed of Norse or Anglo-Saxon warriors

  The Papal States

  When the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the fifth century, it left a political vacuum on the Italian peninsula The pope, virtually the only figure of significant standing, gradually filled the void, assuming political control over Rome. In 756 this de facto control was made official by the Frankish ruler, Pepin, who had recently defeated a Lombard invasion that threatened Rome. In exchange for the title of king, Pepin ‘donated’ his newly-conquered lands surrounding the two cities of Rome and Ravenna to the pope. The resulting Papal States (also called the Republic of Saint Peter) were ruled directly by the popes until the nineteenth century when they were dissolved during the Risorgimento (unification of Italy).

  The exact borders and power of the Papal States fluctuated considerably during the middle ages. At their greatest extent they covered the modern central Italian regions of Lazio, Umbria, Marche, and part of Emilia-Romagna. This territory was guarded by the papal armies, which were commanded in the field by mercenaries, or on occasion, by the pope himself. This period of papal history is best represented by the Renaissance pontiff, Julius II, who built an army around a core of Swiss mercenaries and gained the epithet the Warrior Pope for his frequent military excursions.

  After the unification of Italy in 1871, the pope’s temporal power was restricted to the walls of the Vatican compound, but even that was in doubt. In 1929, an accommodation was reached with the Italian government, which recognized an independent state of ‘Vatican City’. It is still protected by Julius’ Swiss Guard, a remnant of the time when popes fought temporal - as well as spiritual - wars.

  On Romans, Holy Romans, and Byzantines

  Clarity about the past is often sought by oversimplifying it. History is broken down into digestible chunks with neat borders and labels which, however useful, can sometimes be misleading. Dates which were hardly noticed at the time become watershed years, and epochs and ages are given names which would have been unrecognizable to those living during them.

  When national or imperial pride gets involved, the resulting propaganda usually muddies the water even further. The Middle Ages had two rival empires both claiming to be the true Roman Empire. For most of their history neither of them actually controlled Rome, yet both had claims on its legacy.

  The confusion stems from the third century AD when the Roman emperor, Diocletian, decided to split the old Roman Empire in half. The western half, with its capital in Italy, collapsed in the fifth century (the traditional date is 476), but the eastern portion survived until 1453 when a Turkish invasion and the guns of the modern world finally brought it down.

  Since the eastern half was centered on Constantinople, the old Greek city of Byzantium (modern day Istanbul), modern historians refer to it as ‘The Byzantine Empire’ or simply ‘Byzantium’. Its location in the thoroughly hellenized east meant that Greek became the preferred language, so Byzantium is sometimes referred to as the Greek empire. Nonetheless, it is important to note that while it existed, both friends and enemies alike viewed it as Roman, and drew no artificial distinctions between the empire of Rome and that of Byzantium.

  The medieval competitor to the ‘Byzantine’ Empire arrived on Christmas Day in the year 800. During a Mass in Rome, Pope Leo III (for political reasons of his own) placed a crown on the Frankish king Charlemagne’s head and named him Imperator Romanorum, announcing that the defunct Western Empire had been reborn. This version of the empire, however, which spanned both French and Germanic lands, was based in present day Germany and never completely controlled Italy. Because of this, and in an attempt to simplify a complex series of events, most historians refer to Charlemagne’s coronation anachronistically as the start of the Holy Roman Empire or the German Empire. Politically, Charlemagne’s state fell apart almost immediately, and when his direct line petered out in less than a century, the title of Roman Emperor soon followed it. In 962 the German Otto I (a distant relative of Charlemagne) revived the title, and in 1157 his successor Frederick Barbarossa officially added the term sacrum (holy) to his title.

  This German-speaking, Holy Roman Empire may have been - as Voltaire put it – neither ‘holy’, nor ‘roman’, nor (since the emperor was elected) an ‘empire’ – but it was resilient. It survived until the nineteenth century when, in a fit of Enlightenment pique, Napoleon swept it away.

  For clarity’s sake I refer to the Greek-speaking eastern empire as ‘Byzantine’, and the German-speaking western one as ‘German’ throughout the book.

  List of Emperors

  HOLY ROMAN EMPERORS

  Carolingian Dynasty

  800- 14 Charlemagne (Charles I)

  814- 40 Louis I the Pious

  840- 55 Lothair I

  855- 75 Louis II

  875- 77 Charles II (the Bald)

  881- 7 Charles III (the Fat)

  Guideschi Dynasty

  891- 4 Guy III

  894- 8 Lambert II

  Non-Dynastic

  896- 9 Arnulf

  901- 5 Louis III

  915- 24 Berengar

  Saxon Dynasty

  962- 73 Otto I the Great

  973- 83 Otto II

  996-1002 Otto III

  1014- 24 Henry II

  Salian Dynasty

  1027- 39 Conrad II

  1046- 56 Henry III

  1084- 1105 Henry IV

  1111- 25 Henry V

  Non-Dynastic

  1133- 7 Lothair III

  Hohenstaufen Dynasty (*non-dynastic)

  1155- 90 Frederick I Barbarossa

  1191- 7 Henry VI

  1209- 15 Otto IV*

  1220- 50 Frederick II

  BYZANTINE EMPERORS

  Macedonian Dynasty (867-1056)

  867-886 Basil I the Macedonian

  886-912 Leo
VI the Wise

  912-913 Alexander

  913-959 Constantine VII the Purple-born

  920-959 Romanus I Lecapenus

  959-963 Romanus II

  963-969 Nicephorus II Phocas

  969-976 John I Tzimisces

  963-1025 Basil II the Bulgar-Slayer

  1025-1028 Constantine VIII

  1028-1034 Romanus III

  1034-1041 Michael IV

  1041-1042 Michael V

  1042 Zoë and Theodora

  1042-1055 Constantine IX

  1055-1056 Theodora

  Non-Dynastic (1056-1059)

  1056-1057 Michael VI the Old

  1057-1059 Isaac I Comnenus

  Ducas Dynasty (1059-1081)

  1059-1067 Constantine X

  1068-1071 Romanus IV Diogenes

  1071-1078 Michael VII

  1078-1081 Nicephorus III

  Comneni Dynasty (1081-1185)

  1081-1118 Alexius I Comnenus

  1118-1143 John II the Beautiful

  1143-1180 Manuel I

  1180-118 Alexius II

  1183-1185 Andronicus I the Terrible

  Angelus Dynasty (1185-1204)