He Calls Me by Lightning
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Jensen, Ove. “Battle of Horseshoe Bend.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. February 26, 2007; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1044 (accessed January 3, 2016).
Kaetz, James. “Adamsville.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. February 16, 2012; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3217 (accessed January 11, 2014).
———. “Aliceville.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. May 30, 2012; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3260 (accessed January 11, 2014).
———. “Atmore.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. July 15, 2011; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3217 (accessed January 11, 2014).
———. “Autherine Lucy.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. November 9, 2009; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-2489 (accessed May 3, 2016).
———. “Mount Vernon.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. May 30, 2012; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3259 (accessed March 23, 2016).
Kelly, Brian. “Birmingham District Coal Strike of 1908.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. February 22, 2008; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1478 (accessed January 14, 2016).
Key, Barclay. “Fred Gray.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. April 15, 2008; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1510 (accessed April 19, 2016).
Ledet, Shannon Emeigh, and Richard Ledet. “Alabama House of Representatives.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. January 6, 2015; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3649 (accessed January 23, 2016).
———. “Alabama Senate.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. January 6, 2015; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3740 (accessed January 23, 2016).
Lee, J. Lawrence. “Alabama Railroads.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. August 10, 2009; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-2390 (accessed February 9, 2011).
Lewis, David W. “Birmingham Iron and Steel Companies.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. July 8, 2008; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1597 (accessed January 14, 2016).
Lewis, Herbert J. “Jim.” “Daniel Pratt.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. June 12, 2007; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1207 (accessed January 9, 2011).
Maloney, Christopher. “Lipscomb.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. May 14, 2013; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3455 (accessed April 19, 2016).
———. “Reform.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. May 15, 2013; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3456 (accessed April 19, 2016).
———. “Treaty of Fort Jackson.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. February 28, 2011; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3026 (accessed April 19, 2016).
McKiven, Henry M. Jr. “United Mine Workers.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. October 12, 2010; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-2948 (accessed January 14, 2016).
McRae, David. “Free State of Winston.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. June 5, 2008; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1850 (accessed April 18, 2016).
Roberts, Charles Kenneth. “Patterson v. Alabama.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. January 7, 2009; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1899 (accessed January 7, 2015).
Schaefer, Robert M. “State Courts of Alabama.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. October 7, 2010; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-2947 (accessed January 25, 2011).
Schmidt, Greg. “Scottsboro.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. May 6, 2009; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-2129 (accessed March 30, 2015).
Schuppe, Jon. “Civil Rights Act Anniversary: Survivors Recall Attack During Alabama Sit-In.” June 30, 2014; http://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/civil-rights-act-anniversary-survivors-recall-attack-during-alabama-sit-n142066 (accessed September 19, 2016).
Siebenthaler, Donna J. “Jefferson County.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. October 16, 2007; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1370 (accessed January 15, 2011).
———. “Pickens County.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. July 6, 2007; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1207 (accessed January 9, 2011).
Stewart, Robert C. “Bessemer Hall of History.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. June 13, 2013; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3464 (accessed April 12, 2016).
“Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S., an Autobiography”; http://www.history.rochester.edu/ehp-book/shb/pface.htm (accessed November 26, 2011).
Suitts, Steve. “Hugo L. Black.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. November 16, 2008; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1848 (accessed January 11, 2011).
Ward, Robert David. “Banner Mine Tragedy of 1911.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. March 21, 2007; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1135 (accessed January 17, 2011).
Weaver, Bill. “Bryce Hospital (Alabama Insane Hospital).” Encyclopedia of Alabama. June 5, 2008; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1564 (accessed March 23, 2016).
———. “Peter Bryce.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. March 14, 2007; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1109 (accessed March 23, 2016).
Wilson, Claire M. “Eutaw.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. December 4, 2009; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-2501 (accessed April 17, 2016).
Woodham, Rebecca. “Arthur Davis Shores.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. August 16, 2008; http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1644 (accessed March 17, 2016).
UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS
Bailey, Barbara Connell. “Ten Trying Years: A History of Bessemer, Alabama, 1929–1939.” Master’s thesis, Samford University, 1977.
Davis, Christopher. “In the Pursuit of the Goal: A Biography of the Life of Ralph Galt.” Bachelor’s thesis, Samford University, 2003.
Frederick, Jeffery J. “Command and Control: George Wallace, Governor of Alabama 1963–1972.” Ph.D. diss., Auburn University, 2003.
Galt, Ralph. “Memoirs of Ralph Galt or What Some Missionaries Do in Their Spare Time,” copy in possession of author.
Grimes, Lawton Jr. “History of the Bessemer Police Department,” copy in possession of author.
Lee, Frank. “Historical Review of the Alabama Prison System.” Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, Ala.
Pye, David Kenneth. “Legal Subversives: African American Lawyers in the Jim Crow South.” Ph.D. diss., UC San Diego, 2010.
Uhlmann, Jennifer Ruthanne. “The Communist Civil Rights Movement: Legal Activism in the United States, 1919–1946.” Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 2007.
NEWSPAPERS/PERIODICALS
ABA Journal
Alabama Citizen
Alabama Journal
Alabama: The News Magazine of the Deep South
Anniston Star
Atlanta Journal-Constitution
Alabama Lawyer
Atlantic Weekly
Augusta Chronicle (Georgia)
Baltimore Afro-American (Maryland)
Bessemer Advertiser
Bessemer Tribune
Bessemer Tribune-Advertiser
Bessemer Weekly
Bessemer Workman
Birmingham Age-Herald
Birmingham Business Journal
Birmingham News
Birmingham Post-Herald
Birmingham World
Cincinnati Enquirer (Ohio)
Courier-Journal (Kentucky)
Crisis
Delta Democratic-Times (Mississippi)
Dothan Eagle (Alabama)
Ebony
Eugene Guard (Oregon)
Florence Times Daily
Galveston Daily News (Texas)
Garnett Journal (Kansas)
Greensboro Daily News (North Carolina)
Indianapolis Star (Indiana)
Jet
Lexington Herald (Kentucky)
Macon Telegraph (Georgia)
Marietta Journal (Georgia)
Mobile Press
Mobile Register
Montgomery Advertiser
Nation
National Police Journal
New York Clipper
New York Herald
New York Times
Oregonian (Portland)
/>
Palm Beach Post (Florida)
Printers’ Ink (New York)
Richmond Times Dispatch (Virginia)
San Bernardino County Sun (California)
Searchlight (Alabama)
Southern Courier
Southern Workman
St. Louis Republic (Missouri)
St. Petersburg Times (Florida)
Time
Times-Picayune (New Orleans)
Tuscaloosa News
Twin-City Daily Sentinel (North Carolina)
Waco Morning News (Texas)
INTERVIEWS/CONVERSATIONS
Ausbun, Danny. Oral interview by John T. Carson, n.d. Transcript in possession of author.
Chandler, King. Oral interview by Brenda and Steve McCallum. May 23, 1983. W. S. Hoole Special Collections. University of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, Ala.
Clark, Edith Boswell. Telephone conversation with author, June 19, 2006.
Clark, Mason. Telephone conversation with author, June 27, 2006.
Clayton, Bobby. Oral interview by Cliff Kuhn. July 17, 1984. W. S. Hoole Special Collections. University of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, Ala.
Clemon, U. W. Conversation with author, February 11, 2007.
———. Oral interview by Jack Bass. July 17, 1974. Southern Oral History Program Collection. University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, N.C.
Cooley, Helen. Conversation with author, September 3, 2006.
Doss, Chriss H. Oral interview by author. June 4, 2005. Transcript in possession of author.
Ellalee, Elam. Interview by Marlene Rikard. August 21, 1979. Samford University Special Collection. Birmingham, Ala.
Emmons, Thelma. Oral interview by Brenda McCallum. August 26, 1984. W. S. Hoole Special Collections. University of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, Ala.
Emmons, Thelma Coleman. Interview by Marlene Rikard, March 3, 1980. Samford University Special Collection. Birmingham, Ala.
Fallin, Wilson. Interview by author. August 3, 2006. Transcript in possession of author.
Grace, Jesse. Oral interview by Cliff Kuhn. July 16, 1984. W. S. Hoole Special Collections. University of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, Ala.
Harris, Leola. Oral interview by Brenda McCallum. June 25, 1984. W. S. Hoole Special Collections. University of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, Ala.
Howard, Asbury. Oral interview by Jack Spiese. March 27, 1968. United Steelworkers of America and Labor Oral History Collection. Pennsylvania State University Special Collections Library. University Park, Penn.
Johnson, Frank M. Oral interview by Jack Bass and Walter DeVries, July 10, 1974. Southern Oral History Program Collection. University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, N.C.
Morgan, Camille. Conversation with author, May 18, 2006.
Morgan, Charles. Oral interview by Andrew M. Manis, May 24, 1989. Birmingham Public Library Department of Archives and Manuscripts. Birmingham, Ala.
Orange, David. Oral interview by author, March 11, 2006. Transcript in possession of author.
Robinson, Mittie. Interview by Marlene Rikard, January 19, 1981. Samford University Special Collection. Birmingham, Ala.
Shores, Arthur. Oral interview by Jack Bass. July 17, 1974. Southern Oral History Program Collection. University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, N.C.
Smith, Dorothy. Telephone conversation with author, June 30, 2006.
Smith, Katherine. Oral interview by Peggy Hamrick. October 18, 1984. W. S. Hoole Special Collections. University of Alabama. Tuscaloosa, Ala.
Walbert, Eileen. Oral interview by Horace Huntley. February 3, 1995. Birmingham Civil Rights Institute Archives. Birmingham, Ala.
———. Telephone conversation with author, April 27, 2004.
Wallace, George C. Oral interview by Jack Bass and Walter DeVries. July 15, 1974. Southern Oral History Program Collection. University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, N.C.
Washington, Caliph. Oral interview by Horace Huntley. July 22, 1998. Birmingham Civil Rights Institute Archives. Birmingham, Ala.
Washington, Christine Luna. Oral interview by author. January 28, 2004. Transcription in possession of author.
Washington, Michael. Oral interview by author. June 24, 2005. Transcription in possession of author.
Woods, Abraham. Telephone conversation with author, January 13, 2005.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I have been blessed throughout this project with invaluable and generous support. I would like to express my deep gratitude to Scott Cook of W. W. Norton, who took this manuscript’s prospectus to New York and convinced the editors that this was a worthwhile project. Those editors, Bob Weil, William Menaker, and Marie Pantojan, edited, polished, and strengthened the manuscript.
Several friends, all writers and scholars, generously agreed to critique the entire manuscript, including the erudite historian John Mayfield, who helped me understand this civil rights–era story in the broader context of southern honor and manhood; and the exceptional jurist William Pryor, who patiently guided me through the complex web of legal analysis. Thanks also to Margaret Armbrester for her vital criticisms at various stages of the project.
Most importantly, I offer a hearty word of thanks to my friend and mentor Tennant McWilliams. Over thirty years ago, he challenged me, during a close reading of Robert Penn Warren’s All the King’s Men, to take up the “burden” of history and pursue a career as a scholar. Since then, he has served as a patient guide, enthusiastic encourager, steady advisor, and creative critic of this simple first-generation college graduate.
I am blessed to work at a university with such exceptional students. I mention just a few who inspired me throughout the project—this is, by no means, a complete list: Haley Aaron, Maria Aguilera, Jessica Barton, Kitty Rogers Brown, Lauren Doss, Jenna Edwards, JohnMark Edwards, Chris Fite, Charlie Graham, Deidre Downs Gunn, Amy Harold, Mary-Wilkes Harris, Jordan Jones Hays, Holly Howell, Bryan Kessler, Ryan Lally, Hunter Martiniere, Christina Mosley, David Murphy, Evan Musgraves, Tara White Odum, Bradley Patton, Thomas Richie, Chris Shaeffer, Celia Stewart Rouse, Brittany Stancombe, Mary Kathryn Covert Steel, Nicole Hardy Swann, Ricky Thrash, Chase Trautwein, Kim Addington Watkins, Jerrod Williams, and Lauren Ziemer. Three former students provided essential assistance early on in the project: Chris Davis, Ashley Grantham Martin, and Thomas Richie.
While she attended Cumberland School of Law, Lindsey Wade Bridges served as a crackerjack research assistant who tracked down people and resources that provided key information for each chapter in this book.
I also recognize the support of Laura Anderson, Marilyn Ball Armbrester, Leah Atkins, Albert Brewer, Earl Carter, Culpepper Clark, James C. Cobb, Helen Cooley, Harriet Amos Doss, Jack Drake, Charles Eagles, J. M. Edwards, Cynthia Fleming, Lawton Grimes, Jr., Horace Huntley, Chervis Isom, Alphonso January, Mike Logan, Hugh Maddox, Tom Noon, Keith B. Norman, David Orange, Craig Pascoe, June Reese, Jeff Roberts, Maury Smith, Robert Smith, Caroline Summers, Scott Walker, and Dawna Walsh. Thanks also to Eason Balch, Bob Corley, Glenn Eskew, James Hall, James Noles, Sylvia Rodrigue, Brad Walker, and Tony Wanamaker.
In addition, I am particularly beholden to Wilson Fallin for his invaluable and generous support—thanks for opening closed doors in Bessemer.
The man of many hats (historian, preacher, attorney, librarian, politician) and tales, Chriss H. Doss, spent hours and hours regaling me with stories about Bessemer and its colorful lawyers, judges, and politicians. He knew most of them. Doss’s winsome descriptions and wise pontifications provided vibrant details throughout the manuscript.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to the faculty and staff in the Department of History, especially Ivy Alexander for her vital role in the completion of this project. I also express my gratitude to a few of my friends and colleagues at Samford University, including John Carroll, David Chapman, William Collins, Roderick Davis, Julie Steward Fuller, Mike Hardin, Emily Hynds, Michelle Little, Glenda Martin, Susan Wells Murphy, Jodi Newton, William Nunnelley, Marlene Rikard, Jason Wallace, Clark Watson, and Andrew Westmoreland
. I am especially indebted to Erin Stewart Mauldin for her vigorous editing and vital suggestions during the early stages of the manuscript.
A special word of thanks to James L. Baggett of the Birmingham Public Library Department of Archives and Manuscripts for his patient friendship and steady advice throughout this project. I also recognize the assistance of Mary Beth Newbill, Elizabeth Veatch, and Don Vesey.
The rich and abundant sources for this manuscript came from the vast collections at the Alabama Department of Archives and History in Montgomery, Alabama. While many of the archivists at the facility assisted my research efforts, I acknowledge the exceptional work of Norwood Kerr for his pivotal role in this project’s development. In addition, I thank former student Meredith McDonough of the ADAH for uncovering several photographs included in this book.
I also recognize the invaluable contributions of the library staff at Samford University, especially Gale Barton, Cheryl Cecil, Rachel Cohen, Kimmetha Herndon, Lori Northrup, Jennifer Taylor, Carla Waddell, and Elizabeth Wells. Thanks also to Ed Craig of the Beeson Law Library at Samford University, Paul Pruitt, Jr., at the Bounds Law Library at the University of Alabama, Tim Lewis at the Alabama Supreme Court and State Law Library, Gary Gerlach at the now-closed Jefferson County (Alabama) Records Storage Facility, the staff at the National Archives in East Point, Georgia, and the volunteers at the Bessemer Hall of History.
I offer a heartfelt thank you for the grace and friendship extended to me by the family of Caliph Washington, especially Reverend C. Michael Washington and Christine Luna Washington. Mrs. Washington shared with me a Bible passage from Romans 12 that her husband read every Sunday: “If possible, so far as it depends on you, live peaceably with all. . . . ‘If your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him something to drink; for by so doing you will heap burning coals on his head.’ Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good.”
This project would not have been completed without the support of my family, especially my in-laws, Lee and Donna Synnott, my aunt Dorothy Burroughs, and my mother, Faye Bass. I also remember those family members who have passed on before me, including my grandmother Lillian Bass, my father Samuel J. Bass, Jr., and my uncle G. W. Burroughs.