The Gap

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The Gap Page 45

by Thomas Suddendorf


  bonding, and eye contact, 115, 115n2, 115n3

  imitation, 100, 167–168

  and memory, 100–101

  pointing behavior, 115, 116, 123, 188

  Inferential reasoning, 50, 114, 118, 119, 136, 139, 142, 150, 151, 151(fig), 152, 187, 217

  Infovores, 155

  In-groups vs. out-groups, 193, 194, 207

  Inheritance, cultural, 164–183, 188, 191, 221, 225, 227, 276

  Inheritance, genetic. See DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

  Insects, cooperation, 160, 175

  Intelligence, 133–156

  animal, 134, 138, 145, 146, 147–148, 149–156

  aspects of, 137–138, 145

  and brain size, 34–38, 36n12, 156n14, 280, 282

  crystalized, 137, 228, 229

  definition, 135–138, 145, 146

  fluid, 137

  and imagination, 142–144

  theories about, 135–138, 142–143

  and working memory, 140, 141, 142, 153–154, 218

  and flexibility, 108, 131, 134, 142, 144, 144n7, 145–146, 155, 156, 159, 209, 218, 229, 252

  Intelligence Quotient (IQ), 135, 135n1, 137, 138, 141, 153

  Intelligence tests, 135–138, 141, 282

  Intentional stance, 114n1

  Intentionality, shared, 131–132, 183, 207, 219–220, 255n20. See also Minds, linking

  International Gorilla Conservation Program website, 28n8

  International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 26, 28–29, 32, 34

  Internet, and communication, 116, 273, 274, 282

  Inuit, 158n1, 166

  Iraq, Neanderthal in, 266

  Irony, 123

  Ischial callosities, 17

  James, William, 9, 44, 138n4

  Java Man, 252, 265. See Indonesia; Homo erectus

  Kafka, Franz, “A Report to an Academy,” 82, 84, 224

  Kahneman, Daniel and Tversky, Amos, 139

  Kant, Emmanuel, 196

  Kanzi (bonobo), 83, 85, 86, 154, 210

  Karma, 162

  Kenyanthropus platyops, 238(fig), 245

  Khan, Genghis, 231, 232, 234n1

  Khoisan people, Southwest Africa, 234, 262

  Killjoys vs. romantics. See Romantics vs. killjoys

  Kin selection and inclusive fitness, 160, 160n3, 161, 172, 228

  King, Martin Luther, Jr., 98

  Kohlberg, Lawrence, 196

  Köhler, Wolfgang, 10, 16, 146

  Koko (gorilla), 47, 48, 83, 85

  Lächert, Hildegard (Bloody Brigitte), 186

  Language, 63–87

  acquisition, 73, 74–75

  animal 64, 78–87

  and behaviorism, 73, 73n10

  Bininj Gun-Wok people, 75

  and brain function, 64, 64n2, 254, 261n21

  conversational maxims, 76–77, 78

  and culture, 82, 87, 158, 158n1, 166, 170, 171, 220, 254, 270

  English vs. German, 69, 70

  and embedded or nested thinking, 72, 73, 76, 77, 80, 85, 87, 95, 117, 122, 142, 217

  evolution, 75–76, 78–80, 81n12, 100, 254–255, 261, 265

  as generative, 71, 72, 73, 76, 80, 85–87, 143

  and grammar, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75–76, 82, 86, 87

  and linking minds, 99, 115–116, 158, 220, 254–255

  and metaphor, 68–69, 123, 142

  and meta-representation, 67, 76, 77, 80

  morphemes, 71

  and motor control, 81n12, 82

  multilingual people, 69n6, 74

  Piraha people, Amazon, 75

  psycholinguistics, 73, 73n9

  and recursion, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 81, 82, 85, 85n15, 86, 217

  and sharing mental time travels, 99–100

  sign, 48, 64, 80, 81n12, 83, 120, 205n14, 261

  and symbols, 65–69, 68n5, 70, 71, 76, 83, 84, 84n14, 86, 87, 104, 142, 150, 158, 171, 250, 260, 262, 270–271, 271n3

  and syntax, 71–73, 74. See also and grammar under Language

  and teaching, 83, 169, 170, 183

  and theory of mind, 115, 116 See also and linking minds under Language

  universals, 73, 74, 75–76, 82, 87

  written, 75, 166, 167, 269–274

  Langurs, 17, 37(fig)

  Lascaux Cave, 262–263, 263(fig)

  Laws, 164, 190, 199–200, 199n9, 209, 210–212, 212n19, 272

  Leakey, Louis, 22, 246

  Leakey, Mary, 243

  Leakey, Meave, 244–245

  Leakey, Richard, 234, 248

  “Leakey’s Angels,” 22

  Lean vs. rich interpretations. See Rich vs. lean interpretations

  Learning

  associative. See Associative learning

  and imitation, 167–169, 173, 176–181, 183, 221

  imprinting, 173

  and mental practice, 97, 99, 170, 221

  and practice, 97, 99, 103, 103n5, 117, 127, 128, 169, 170, 170n12, 217, 222

  social, in animals, 31–32, 173–183

  Levallois technology, 256–257

  Lice, 244

  Life expectancy, 18, 227–228

  Linguistic relativity, 158n1

  Linguistic Society of Paris, 78

  Linnaeus, Carl, Systema Naturae, 18, 274, 274n4

  Lloyd Morgan’s canon, 41, 42

  Lofting, Hugh, Dr. Doolittle, 79

  Lord of the Rings (Tolkien), 10, 264, 269

  Lorenz, Konrad, 90

  Lowland gorillas, 26, 27, 28(fig), 29

  Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis), 242, 242(fig)

  Lumpers vs. splitters, 237, 237n3, 238(fig), 249n11

  Lying, 121, 123, 191, 200–201. See also Deception

  Macaques, 17, 18, 37(fig), 38n14, 53, 204, 207. See also Rhesus monkey

  Maori, 70n7, 71, 235, 265

  Mark test, for mirror self-recognition, 52–56, 58–60

  Marmosets, 17, 51n8, 206, 227n8

  Marshmallow test, 198

  Mass media, 116, 222, 272–274

  Mating habits, primate, 25, 29–30, 32, 126, 205n14, 228. See also Reproduction

  Matsuzawa, Tetsuro, 153

  Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 128

  Meditation, 97, 223

  Meerkats, 64, 181–182

  Memes, 166, 166n8, 167, 168, 171, 174, 175, 228

  Memory, 89–111

  and dreaming, 45n5

  early childhood, 100–102

  eidetic (photographic), 93n2

  episodic, 91, 91n1, 92, 93, 94, 95, 101, 104–105, 106

  and foresight, 93, 94, 94n3, 95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 106, 110

  episodic-like, in animals, 104–106

  and information chunking, 140, 141, 142

  and natural selection, 93, 94

  procedural, 91, 91n1, 100, 104

  reliability of, 92, 95, 105

  semantic, 91, 91n1, 100–101, 104, 110

  short-term. See Working memory

  working, 140, 140n3, 141–142, 153–154, 218, 276

  Memory systems, 91

  Men Who Stare at Goats, The (film), 113

  Mental practice, of skills, 97, 221, 229

  Mental time travel, 44, 89–111, 117, 131, 141, 146, 153, 156, 170, 171, 176, 183, 206, 215

  Mesopotamia, 158, 271

  Metaphor

  and decontextualization, 142

  and language, 68–69

  theater, 95–96, 99, 114, 140, 216, 218, 218n1

  and theory of mind, 114, 123

  Meta-representation, 67, 76, 80, 119, 144n7, 145–146. See also Embedded thinking; Recursion

  and language, 76, 77

  Middle Ages, 194–195

  animals put on trial, 212

  Midgely, Thomas, 199

  Migration patterns, human, 233, 235(fig), 251–252, 254n17, 258–260, 264

  Mind reading. See Theory of mind

  Mind-body connection, 8, 9–10

  Minds, linking, 100, 115–117, 131–132, 216, 276

  advent of, 252, 255


  and bonding, 222

  and earth’s future, 275–276

  and group selection, 265

  and language, 99, 115–116, 158, 220, 254–255

  and media technologies, 116, 271–274

  Mirror self-recognition, 52–62, 53(fig), 59(fig), 278–279

  evolution of, 61, 62

  gibbons and, 58–59, 59(fig)

  mark test, 52–56, 58–60

  and object permanence, 57

  and pretend play, 57

  and self-awareness, 55, 56n14

  Mirror neurons, 168, 177

  Mischel, Walter, 198

  Missing links, 7, 13, 236–253, 256

  and language evolution, 79–80

  traits of, 237, 239, 240, 243

  Mitochondrial DNA, 233, 234, 258

  Mnemonic strategies, 140

  Monkeys

  and culture, 173–174

  and following gaze, 128, 129

  and foresight, 108–109, 109n6

  and imitation, 177, 178, 178n15

  and mirror self-recognition, 52, 53, 54n1, 61

  new-world, 17–18. 19(fig), 37(fig). See also Capuchin monkeys; Marmosets; Spider monkeys; Tamarins

  and object permanence tasks, 50

  old-world, 17–18, 19(fig), 36(tab), 37(fig). See also Baboons; Colobus monkeys; Langurs; Macaques; Vervet monkeys

  and perspective taking, 126

  and pretend play, 48

  vs. primates, 17

  uncertainty monitoring, 145, 145n8

  Monotreme, definition, 7

  Moore, Chris, 115, 117

  Morality, 185–213

  and animals, 201–213

  as basis of culture, 187

  and cooperation, 187–198, 201–202, 206, 207, 211

  Darwin on, 198n8, 209

  definitions of, 186, 186n2, 207

  foundations of, 187

  and free will, 198–200

  and human development, 194, 196–197

  as innate, 188, 196–197

  and law, 199–200

  levels, De Waal’s, 187, 190–191, 195–196, 205, 209

  and nested scenario building, 209, 220

  and religion, 193, 194, 196, 271, 272

  and self-deception, 201

  and self-reflection, 195–196, 197, 197–198, 198n8, 199, 201, 209, 210

  and social sanctions, 187, 191, 192

  universals, 191, 194, 195, 196–197

  World War II Germany, 185–186, 201

  Morals, vs. conventional norms, 194

  Morgan, Conway Lloyd, 41, 42

  Morphemes, 71

  Mortality, knowledge of, 55, 89–90, 102, 111, 228

  Motor control, and speech, 81n12, 82

  Motorized transportation, 273

  Mount Carmel Caves, Mediterranean, 259(fig)

  Müller, Friedrich Max, 78

  Multilingual people, 69n6

  Murder, 12, 41, 161n4, 193, 203, 272

  pig convicted of, 212

  chimpanzee, 30–31, 202–203, 211

  Musical instruments, early, 262

  Mutations, genetic, 75, 233, 246, 262n21, 282

  Myths, Greek, 103, 223

  Nariokotome Boy, 248–249

  National Zoo, Smithsonian Institute, Washington, DC, 28(fig)

  Natural selection, 5, 5n2, 7

  group, 265, 265n25, 266

  and language, 78, 81n12

  and memory, 93–94

  and modern humans, 280

  and nested scenario building, 218, 229

  and technology, 279

  and weapon use, 242

  Nature vs. nurture, 224n4

  Neander Valley, Germany, 257

  Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), 10, 236, 238(fig), 249n12, 257–261, 258(fig)

  age of population, 263

  brain size, 255n18, 260

  burial, 260, 263

  diet, 258

  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 258, 259

  extinction, 12, 259–260, 261, 266–267

  hunting behavior, 260

  interbreeding with modern humans, 13, 257, 259–260, 259(fig), 266–267

  in Iraq (Shanidar 3 site), 266

  material culture, 263

  in Siberia, 236

  and speech, 260, 261

  Neisser, Ulrich, 55, 56

  Neocortex, brain, 17, 36n12, 255, 255n18

  Neoteny, 225

  Nested scenario building, 95–96, 114, 153, 216, 216(fig), 218, 220, 276. See also Embedded thinking

  great apes and, 217

  and group selection, 265

  in hominins, 252, 256, 257, 260

  and human development, 217, 221

  and morality, 209, 220

  and theater metaphor, 95, 114, 140

  and theory of mind, 114, 117, 122

  and urge to link minds, 158–159, 219

  and working memory, 140–142

  Nested thinking. See Nested scenario building; Recursion; Embedded thinking

  Neurons, brain, 34, 36n12, 37–38, 38n14, 168,

  New World, human migration, 235

  New Zealand, 70, 70n7, 71, 90, 101(fig), 211, 235

  Newton, Isaac, 165n7, 273

  New-world monkeys, 17. See also Capuchin monkeys; Marmosets; Spider monkeys; Tamarins

  Nielsen, Mark, 167–168, 180(fig), 181, 286

  Nim Chimpsky (chimpanzee), 83, 154

  Nina (author’s daughter), 65, 101(fig), 116, 188

  Nomascus concolor (western black crested gibbon), 22

  Norms, social, 190–191, 192

  and animals, 207–209

  conventional vs. moral, 194

  and cooperation, 183, 227, 260,

  and cross-cultural interactions, 193, 194–195

  enforcement, 163, 172n13, 190–191, 192, 208, 277, 281

  learning, 192, 193, 222

  and normative self-government, 209

  violation of, 197–198, 196n7

  Norway, and doomsday seed bank, 102

  Noses, primate, 15, 17

  “Nutcracker Man” (Paranthropus boisei), 11, 245(fig), 245–246, 249n12

  Object permanence tasks, 49, 50–51, 50(fig), 57, 278

  and mirror self-recognition, 57

  Ockie (chimpanzee), 30(fig), 47, 50(fig), 65–66, 65(fig), 108, 125(fig), 138n3, 286

  Octopus, 57–58, 81–82, 134, 176

  Old-world monkeys, 17–18. See also Baboons; Colobus monkeys; Macaques; Mangabeys

  encephalization quotient (EQ), 36(tab)

  Oldowan tools, 247, 254n17

  Olfactory bulb, 38

  Olfactory sense, of primates, 15

  On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 5, 8, 9

  Onomatopoeia, 67

  Opposable thumb, 1–2, 15, 23

  Opposable big toe, 23, 243n8

  Orangutan bridge, Ketambe, Sumatra, 25(fig)

  Orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus), 22–26, 23(fig), 24(fig), 25(fig), 180(fig)

  Chantek, 83

  diet of, 23–24

  as endangered, 26, 26n

  excess brain mass above that predicted by body size, 37(fig)

  forced sex, 25

  and foresight, 109, 110

  meaning of name, 18

  and mirror self-recognition, 52, 54n12, 61

  and object permanence tasks, 50, 51

  Peter Pan morph, 24, 25

  problem solving, 25, 146–147, 148, 151(fig), 152

  and social learning, 174, 175, 178, 180(fig), 182

  tool use, 25, 146–147, 148

  vocalizations, 24

  Orronin tugenensis, 238(fig), 240, 241n5

  Orwell, George, 110

  Othello (Shakespeare), 122

  Ötzi (the Iceman), 96–97, 266

  Out-groups vs. in-groups, 193, 194, 207

  Oxytocin (hormone), 16, 169n11

  Painting, by chimpanzee, 65–66, 65(fig)

  Painting, early human, 260, 262–263, 263(fig)

  Palm oil plantations, and habitat destru
ction, 26, 26n7

  Pan troglodytes (common chimpanzees). See Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

  Pan paniscus (bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee). See Bonobos (Pan paniscus)

  Paranthropus aethiopicus, 238(fig), 246

  Paranthropus boisei “Nutcracker Man,” 11, 11n6, 238(fig), 245–246, 245(fig), 249n12

  Paranthropus robustus, 11, 11n6, 238(fig), 246

  Parietal lobes, brain, 94, 243n6

  Parrots, and speech, 64, 82, 86, 215

  Parsimony, 40n1, 61, 62n16

  Pavlov, Ivan, 93, 107

  Peking Man, 249(fig), 252. See China; Homo erectus

  Periaqueductal gray, 80–81

  Perner, Joseph, 55, 56–57, 119–120

  Person, definition, 199

  Personhood, for primates, 210–212

  Peter Pan morph orangutan, 24–25

  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (journal), 273

  Phonograph, invention of, 78, 79

  Photographic memory, 93n2, 154, 204n13

  Phylogenetic tree of humans and closest animal relatives, 19(fig), 61(fig)

  Piaget, Jean, 49, 49n7, 50, 51, 196

  Pigeons, behaviorally conditioned, 53–54, 107, 174

  Pinker, Steven, 63, 86, 189, 212, 281

  The Better Angels of Our Nature, 12

  definition of intelligence, 138, 146

  Piraha people, Amazon, 75

  Place cells, hippocampus, 216–217

  Play, animal, 46, 47–48, 103n5, 156, 211, 217

  Pointing, 50, 65, 66, 68, 86, 104, 115–116, 123, 126, 131–132, 188, 261

  Pollution, environmental, 102, 199, 213, 275

  Pongo. See Orangutans

  Postal services, 271, 273

  Povinelli, Daniel, 126, 127, 128–129, 130–131, 148, 149, 150

  Practice, and learning, 97, 99, 103, 103n5, 117, 127, 128, 169, 170, 170n12, 217, 221, 222

  Prefrontal cortex, 38, 45, 94

  Prehensile tail, 17

  Premack, David, 118, 119, 124, 125, 150, 155

  Pretend play, and child development, 45, 46, 48, 55, 217, 221

  and mirror self-recognition, 57

  Pretend play, in animals, 45, 46–48

  Printing press, invented, 272–273

  Problem solving

  and analogical reasoning, 149, 150

  animals, 134, 146–153

  baboons, 155

  birds, 134, 144, 147–148, 148, 149, 149n10, 152n3

  capuchin monkeys, 149, 183

  chimpanzees, 31, 50–51, 110, 119, 126, 131, 138n3, 146–147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 152n12, 155, 172–173, 174, 178–180

  crows, 148, 149, 149n10, 152n13

  and cultural inheritance, 171–172

  gorillas, 146–147, 151

  great apes, 149, 150, 155, 156

  human vs. animal, 149, 150

  humans, 133–134, 156

  orangutans, 25, 146–147, 148, 151(fig), 152

  Procedural memory, 91, 91n1, 100, 104

  Project Nim (documentary), 83n13

  Prometheus myth, 103, 251

  Proximate vs. ultimate explanations, 162n5

 

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