The Gap
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bonding, and eye contact, 115, 115n2, 115n3
imitation, 100, 167–168
and memory, 100–101
pointing behavior, 115, 116, 123, 188
Inferential reasoning, 50, 114, 118, 119, 136, 139, 142, 150, 151, 151(fig), 152, 187, 217
Infovores, 155
In-groups vs. out-groups, 193, 194, 207
Inheritance, cultural, 164–183, 188, 191, 221, 225, 227, 276
Inheritance, genetic. See DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Insects, cooperation, 160, 175
Intelligence, 133–156
animal, 134, 138, 145, 146, 147–148, 149–156
aspects of, 137–138, 145
and brain size, 34–38, 36n12, 156n14, 280, 282
crystalized, 137, 228, 229
definition, 135–138, 145, 146
fluid, 137
and imagination, 142–144
theories about, 135–138, 142–143
and working memory, 140, 141, 142, 153–154, 218
and flexibility, 108, 131, 134, 142, 144, 144n7, 145–146, 155, 156, 159, 209, 218, 229, 252
Intelligence Quotient (IQ), 135, 135n1, 137, 138, 141, 153
Intelligence tests, 135–138, 141, 282
Intentional stance, 114n1
Intentionality, shared, 131–132, 183, 207, 219–220, 255n20. See also Minds, linking
International Gorilla Conservation Program website, 28n8
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 26, 28–29, 32, 34
Internet, and communication, 116, 273, 274, 282
Inuit, 158n1, 166
Iraq, Neanderthal in, 266
Irony, 123
Ischial callosities, 17
James, William, 9, 44, 138n4
Java Man, 252, 265. See Indonesia; Homo erectus
Kafka, Franz, “A Report to an Academy,” 82, 84, 224
Kahneman, Daniel and Tversky, Amos, 139
Kant, Emmanuel, 196
Kanzi (bonobo), 83, 85, 86, 154, 210
Karma, 162
Kenyanthropus platyops, 238(fig), 245
Khan, Genghis, 231, 232, 234n1
Khoisan people, Southwest Africa, 234, 262
Killjoys vs. romantics. See Romantics vs. killjoys
Kin selection and inclusive fitness, 160, 160n3, 161, 172, 228
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 98
Kohlberg, Lawrence, 196
Köhler, Wolfgang, 10, 16, 146
Koko (gorilla), 47, 48, 83, 85
Lächert, Hildegard (Bloody Brigitte), 186
Language, 63–87
acquisition, 73, 74–75
animal 64, 78–87
and behaviorism, 73, 73n10
Bininj Gun-Wok people, 75
and brain function, 64, 64n2, 254, 261n21
conversational maxims, 76–77, 78
and culture, 82, 87, 158, 158n1, 166, 170, 171, 220, 254, 270
English vs. German, 69, 70
and embedded or nested thinking, 72, 73, 76, 77, 80, 85, 87, 95, 117, 122, 142, 217
evolution, 75–76, 78–80, 81n12, 100, 254–255, 261, 265
as generative, 71, 72, 73, 76, 80, 85–87, 143
and grammar, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75–76, 82, 86, 87
and linking minds, 99, 115–116, 158, 220, 254–255
and metaphor, 68–69, 123, 142
and meta-representation, 67, 76, 77, 80
morphemes, 71
and motor control, 81n12, 82
multilingual people, 69n6, 74
Piraha people, Amazon, 75
psycholinguistics, 73, 73n9
and recursion, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 81, 82, 85, 85n15, 86, 217
and sharing mental time travels, 99–100
sign, 48, 64, 80, 81n12, 83, 120, 205n14, 261
and symbols, 65–69, 68n5, 70, 71, 76, 83, 84, 84n14, 86, 87, 104, 142, 150, 158, 171, 250, 260, 262, 270–271, 271n3
and syntax, 71–73, 74. See also and grammar under Language
and teaching, 83, 169, 170, 183
and theory of mind, 115, 116 See also and linking minds under Language
universals, 73, 74, 75–76, 82, 87
written, 75, 166, 167, 269–274
Langurs, 17, 37(fig)
Lascaux Cave, 262–263, 263(fig)
Laws, 164, 190, 199–200, 199n9, 209, 210–212, 212n19, 272
Leakey, Louis, 22, 246
Leakey, Mary, 243
Leakey, Meave, 244–245
Leakey, Richard, 234, 248
“Leakey’s Angels,” 22
Lean vs. rich interpretations. See Rich vs. lean interpretations
Learning
associative. See Associative learning
and imitation, 167–169, 173, 176–181, 183, 221
imprinting, 173
and mental practice, 97, 99, 170, 221
and practice, 97, 99, 103, 103n5, 117, 127, 128, 169, 170, 170n12, 217, 222
social, in animals, 31–32, 173–183
Levallois technology, 256–257
Lice, 244
Life expectancy, 18, 227–228
Linguistic relativity, 158n1
Linguistic Society of Paris, 78
Linnaeus, Carl, Systema Naturae, 18, 274, 274n4
Lloyd Morgan’s canon, 41, 42
Lofting, Hugh, Dr. Doolittle, 79
Lord of the Rings (Tolkien), 10, 264, 269
Lorenz, Konrad, 90
Lowland gorillas, 26, 27, 28(fig), 29
Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis), 242, 242(fig)
Lumpers vs. splitters, 237, 237n3, 238(fig), 249n11
Lying, 121, 123, 191, 200–201. See also Deception
Macaques, 17, 18, 37(fig), 38n14, 53, 204, 207. See also Rhesus monkey
Maori, 70n7, 71, 235, 265
Mark test, for mirror self-recognition, 52–56, 58–60
Marmosets, 17, 51n8, 206, 227n8
Marshmallow test, 198
Mass media, 116, 222, 272–274
Mating habits, primate, 25, 29–30, 32, 126, 205n14, 228. See also Reproduction
Matsuzawa, Tetsuro, 153
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 128
Meditation, 97, 223
Meerkats, 64, 181–182
Memes, 166, 166n8, 167, 168, 171, 174, 175, 228
Memory, 89–111
and dreaming, 45n5
early childhood, 100–102
eidetic (photographic), 93n2
episodic, 91, 91n1, 92, 93, 94, 95, 101, 104–105, 106
and foresight, 93, 94, 94n3, 95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 106, 110
episodic-like, in animals, 104–106
and information chunking, 140, 141, 142
and natural selection, 93, 94
procedural, 91, 91n1, 100, 104
reliability of, 92, 95, 105
semantic, 91, 91n1, 100–101, 104, 110
short-term. See Working memory
working, 140, 140n3, 141–142, 153–154, 218, 276
Memory systems, 91
Men Who Stare at Goats, The (film), 113
Mental practice, of skills, 97, 221, 229
Mental time travel, 44, 89–111, 117, 131, 141, 146, 153, 156, 170, 171, 176, 183, 206, 215
Mesopotamia, 158, 271
Metaphor
and decontextualization, 142
and language, 68–69
theater, 95–96, 99, 114, 140, 216, 218, 218n1
and theory of mind, 114, 123
Meta-representation, 67, 76, 80, 119, 144n7, 145–146. See also Embedded thinking; Recursion
and language, 76, 77
Middle Ages, 194–195
animals put on trial, 212
Midgely, Thomas, 199
Migration patterns, human, 233, 235(fig), 251–252, 254n17, 258–260, 264
Mind reading. See Theory of mind
Mind-body connection, 8, 9–10
Minds, linking, 100, 115–117, 131–132, 216, 276
advent of, 252, 255
and bonding, 222
and earth’s future, 275–276
and group selection, 265
and language, 99, 115–116, 158, 220, 254–255
and media technologies, 116, 271–274
Mirror self-recognition, 52–62, 53(fig), 59(fig), 278–279
evolution of, 61, 62
gibbons and, 58–59, 59(fig)
mark test, 52–56, 58–60
and object permanence, 57
and pretend play, 57
and self-awareness, 55, 56n14
Mirror neurons, 168, 177
Mischel, Walter, 198
Missing links, 7, 13, 236–253, 256
and language evolution, 79–80
traits of, 237, 239, 240, 243
Mitochondrial DNA, 233, 234, 258
Mnemonic strategies, 140
Monkeys
and culture, 173–174
and following gaze, 128, 129
and foresight, 108–109, 109n6
and imitation, 177, 178, 178n15
and mirror self-recognition, 52, 53, 54n1, 61
new-world, 17–18. 19(fig), 37(fig). See also Capuchin monkeys; Marmosets; Spider monkeys; Tamarins
and object permanence tasks, 50
old-world, 17–18, 19(fig), 36(tab), 37(fig). See also Baboons; Colobus monkeys; Langurs; Macaques; Vervet monkeys
and perspective taking, 126
and pretend play, 48
vs. primates, 17
uncertainty monitoring, 145, 145n8
Monotreme, definition, 7
Moore, Chris, 115, 117
Morality, 185–213
and animals, 201–213
as basis of culture, 187
and cooperation, 187–198, 201–202, 206, 207, 211
Darwin on, 198n8, 209
definitions of, 186, 186n2, 207
foundations of, 187
and free will, 198–200
and human development, 194, 196–197
as innate, 188, 196–197
and law, 199–200
levels, De Waal’s, 187, 190–191, 195–196, 205, 209
and nested scenario building, 209, 220
and religion, 193, 194, 196, 271, 272
and self-deception, 201
and self-reflection, 195–196, 197, 197–198, 198n8, 199, 201, 209, 210
and social sanctions, 187, 191, 192
universals, 191, 194, 195, 196–197
World War II Germany, 185–186, 201
Morals, vs. conventional norms, 194
Morgan, Conway Lloyd, 41, 42
Morphemes, 71
Mortality, knowledge of, 55, 89–90, 102, 111, 228
Motor control, and speech, 81n12, 82
Motorized transportation, 273
Mount Carmel Caves, Mediterranean, 259(fig)
Müller, Friedrich Max, 78
Multilingual people, 69n6
Murder, 12, 41, 161n4, 193, 203, 272
pig convicted of, 212
chimpanzee, 30–31, 202–203, 211
Musical instruments, early, 262
Mutations, genetic, 75, 233, 246, 262n21, 282
Myths, Greek, 103, 223
Nariokotome Boy, 248–249
National Zoo, Smithsonian Institute, Washington, DC, 28(fig)
Natural selection, 5, 5n2, 7
group, 265, 265n25, 266
and language, 78, 81n12
and memory, 93–94
and modern humans, 280
and nested scenario building, 218, 229
and technology, 279
and weapon use, 242
Nature vs. nurture, 224n4
Neander Valley, Germany, 257
Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), 10, 236, 238(fig), 249n12, 257–261, 258(fig)
age of population, 263
brain size, 255n18, 260
burial, 260, 263
diet, 258
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 258, 259
extinction, 12, 259–260, 261, 266–267
hunting behavior, 260
interbreeding with modern humans, 13, 257, 259–260, 259(fig), 266–267
in Iraq (Shanidar 3 site), 266
material culture, 263
in Siberia, 236
and speech, 260, 261
Neisser, Ulrich, 55, 56
Neocortex, brain, 17, 36n12, 255, 255n18
Neoteny, 225
Nested scenario building, 95–96, 114, 153, 216, 216(fig), 218, 220, 276. See also Embedded thinking
great apes and, 217
and group selection, 265
in hominins, 252, 256, 257, 260
and human development, 217, 221
and morality, 209, 220
and theater metaphor, 95, 114, 140
and theory of mind, 114, 117, 122
and urge to link minds, 158–159, 219
and working memory, 140–142
Nested thinking. See Nested scenario building; Recursion; Embedded thinking
Neurons, brain, 34, 36n12, 37–38, 38n14, 168,
New World, human migration, 235
New Zealand, 70, 70n7, 71, 90, 101(fig), 211, 235
Newton, Isaac, 165n7, 273
New-world monkeys, 17. See also Capuchin monkeys; Marmosets; Spider monkeys; Tamarins
Nielsen, Mark, 167–168, 180(fig), 181, 286
Nim Chimpsky (chimpanzee), 83, 154
Nina (author’s daughter), 65, 101(fig), 116, 188
Nomascus concolor (western black crested gibbon), 22
Norms, social, 190–191, 192
and animals, 207–209
conventional vs. moral, 194
and cooperation, 183, 227, 260,
and cross-cultural interactions, 193, 194–195
enforcement, 163, 172n13, 190–191, 192, 208, 277, 281
learning, 192, 193, 222
and normative self-government, 209
violation of, 197–198, 196n7
Norway, and doomsday seed bank, 102
Noses, primate, 15, 17
“Nutcracker Man” (Paranthropus boisei), 11, 245(fig), 245–246, 249n12
Object permanence tasks, 49, 50–51, 50(fig), 57, 278
and mirror self-recognition, 57
Ockie (chimpanzee), 30(fig), 47, 50(fig), 65–66, 65(fig), 108, 125(fig), 138n3, 286
Octopus, 57–58, 81–82, 134, 176
Old-world monkeys, 17–18. See also Baboons; Colobus monkeys; Macaques; Mangabeys
encephalization quotient (EQ), 36(tab)
Oldowan tools, 247, 254n17
Olfactory bulb, 38
Olfactory sense, of primates, 15
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 5, 8, 9
Onomatopoeia, 67
Opposable thumb, 1–2, 15, 23
Opposable big toe, 23, 243n8
Orangutan bridge, Ketambe, Sumatra, 25(fig)
Orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus), 22–26, 23(fig), 24(fig), 25(fig), 180(fig)
Chantek, 83
diet of, 23–24
as endangered, 26, 26n
excess brain mass above that predicted by body size, 37(fig)
forced sex, 25
and foresight, 109, 110
meaning of name, 18
and mirror self-recognition, 52, 54n12, 61
and object permanence tasks, 50, 51
Peter Pan morph, 24, 25
problem solving, 25, 146–147, 148, 151(fig), 152
and social learning, 174, 175, 178, 180(fig), 182
tool use, 25, 146–147, 148
vocalizations, 24
Orronin tugenensis, 238(fig), 240, 241n5
Orwell, George, 110
Othello (Shakespeare), 122
Ötzi (the Iceman), 96–97, 266
Out-groups vs. in-groups, 193, 194, 207
Oxytocin (hormone), 16, 169n11
Painting, by chimpanzee, 65–66, 65(fig)
Painting, early human, 260, 262–263, 263(fig)
Palm oil plantations, and habitat destru
ction, 26, 26n7
Pan troglodytes (common chimpanzees). See Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Pan paniscus (bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee). See Bonobos (Pan paniscus)
Paranthropus aethiopicus, 238(fig), 246
Paranthropus boisei “Nutcracker Man,” 11, 11n6, 238(fig), 245–246, 245(fig), 249n12
Paranthropus robustus, 11, 11n6, 238(fig), 246
Parietal lobes, brain, 94, 243n6
Parrots, and speech, 64, 82, 86, 215
Parsimony, 40n1, 61, 62n16
Pavlov, Ivan, 93, 107
Peking Man, 249(fig), 252. See China; Homo erectus
Periaqueductal gray, 80–81
Perner, Joseph, 55, 56–57, 119–120
Person, definition, 199
Personhood, for primates, 210–212
Peter Pan morph orangutan, 24–25
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (journal), 273
Phonograph, invention of, 78, 79
Photographic memory, 93n2, 154, 204n13
Phylogenetic tree of humans and closest animal relatives, 19(fig), 61(fig)
Piaget, Jean, 49, 49n7, 50, 51, 196
Pigeons, behaviorally conditioned, 53–54, 107, 174
Pinker, Steven, 63, 86, 189, 212, 281
The Better Angels of Our Nature, 12
definition of intelligence, 138, 146
Piraha people, Amazon, 75
Place cells, hippocampus, 216–217
Play, animal, 46, 47–48, 103n5, 156, 211, 217
Pointing, 50, 65, 66, 68, 86, 104, 115–116, 123, 126, 131–132, 188, 261
Pollution, environmental, 102, 199, 213, 275
Pongo. See Orangutans
Postal services, 271, 273
Povinelli, Daniel, 126, 127, 128–129, 130–131, 148, 149, 150
Practice, and learning, 97, 99, 103, 103n5, 117, 127, 128, 169, 170, 170n12, 217, 221, 222
Prefrontal cortex, 38, 45, 94
Prehensile tail, 17
Premack, David, 118, 119, 124, 125, 150, 155
Pretend play, and child development, 45, 46, 48, 55, 217, 221
and mirror self-recognition, 57
Pretend play, in animals, 45, 46–48
Printing press, invented, 272–273
Problem solving
and analogical reasoning, 149, 150
animals, 134, 146–153
baboons, 155
birds, 134, 144, 147–148, 148, 149, 149n10, 152n3
capuchin monkeys, 149, 183
chimpanzees, 31, 50–51, 110, 119, 126, 131, 138n3, 146–147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 152n12, 155, 172–173, 174, 178–180
crows, 148, 149, 149n10, 152n13
and cultural inheritance, 171–172
gorillas, 146–147, 151
great apes, 149, 150, 155, 156
human vs. animal, 149, 150
humans, 133–134, 156
orangutans, 25, 146–147, 148, 151(fig), 152
Procedural memory, 91, 91n1, 100, 104
Project Nim (documentary), 83n13
Prometheus myth, 103, 251
Proximate vs. ultimate explanations, 162n5