The Choice We Face
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Forman, James, Jr., 146, 149
Forman, Stanley, 63
for-profit charter schools, 13, 130–31, 179
Frankenberg, Erica, 121, 166–67, 181
Freedom and Capitalism (Friedman), 43
freedom of association, 28, 30
freedom of choice in education, 17–37; civil rights activism and, 33–36; development of school choice, 19–30; ideology behind school choice, 30–33; introduction to, 17–19; northern cities, desegregation orders and, 37
Freedom of Choice in the United States (FOCUS) initiative, 35–6
freedom of choice plans, 28–30, 33–35, 38, 46, 124
Freedom Riders and Freedom Rides, 64, 139
Freedom Schools, 74
Freeman v. Pitts, 106
free market ideology, 44–45, 117, 123, 125, 131–32, 175. See also Friedman, Milton
Free School movement, 118
Friedman, Milton: American Dream and, 39, 41–2; Chicago’s historical racism, ignoring of, 60–61; Chicago’s segregated public schools and, 59–61; Civil Rights Act, opposition to, 47, 61; education, views on, 44–45; federal enactment of theories of, 111; free market theories, 40, 176; Goldwater and, 47–48; on integration, 45; legacy of, 164–65; libertarianism of, 46; mentioned, 15, 37; New York liberals and, 48; Republican Party and, 41, 48; rise of, 38–49; school choice, devotion to, 164–65; on segregation in Chicago, 59; structural racism in philosophy of, 39; on teachers’ unions, 183; at University of Chicago, 49, 54; White privilege and, 42
Friedman, Rose D., 41, 164
Fuller, Howard (Owusu Sadaukai): as activist, 139–42; community engagement, 145–46; on integration, 148; on local school control, 175; mentioned, 157; Milwaukee, school reform activities in, 149–54; New Orleans schools and, 161; on school choice, 162–63; on segregation, 169; Williams and, 210
Gaither, Milton, 134
Galamison, Milton, 67, 79
Gallup poll on charter schools, 10
García, Lily Eskelsen, 207
Gardendale City, Alabama, racism in, 168
Garrity, Arthur, 74–75, 76
George, Gary, 152
Georgia: Brown v. Board of Education, response to, 23; Citizens’ Councils in, 24; continued school segregation in, 25; public funding of private education, 124
Goals 2000: Educate America Act (1994), 104, 105
Goldstein, Dana, 100
Goldwater, Barry, 47, 72
Goodman, Andrew, 96
Great Depression, 39–40
Great Migration, 49
Great Society programs, 41
Green v. County School Board of Kent County, 26, 35, 73
Greer, Elisabeth, 198
Gressette Committee (South Carolina), 30–31
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, 24, 34
grit, 42
Gross, Robert, 125
Guggenheim, Davis, 133
Hannah-Jones, Nikole, 148, 167, 213
Hansberry, Carl, 51
Hansberry, Lorraine, 52
Hansberry v. Lee, 52
Harlan, John, 169
Harlem, New York City, public schools in, 143–44
Harlem Children’s Zone, 12–13, 132
Hastings, Reed, 185
health, impact of desegregation on, 212
Hentoff, Nat, 66
HEW (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare), 33, 59, 69, 94
Hicks, Louise Day, 74
Hirsh, Arnold, 50, 56
Hollings, Fritz, 31
Holt, John, 66, 134
Home Owner’s Loan Corporation, 50
homeschooling, 133–35
Home School Legal Defense Association, 135
housing: housing covenants, 42, 50;
housing speculation in Chicago, 52; redlining, 39, 50
hunger strikes, 199, 202
Hyde Park, Chicago, Blacks in, 54–56
Hyde Park–Woodlawn Improvement Society, 51
Illinois Blighted Areas Redevelopment Act (1947), 53
Indianapolis, school segregation in, 167
individual actions, importance of, 211–12
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1990), 186
inner city problems, racism and school desegregation efforts, 83–88
Institute for Justice, 145
Institute on Race and Policy, 176
integration: de facto segregation defense against, 147; fair integration, 150; Friedman on, 45; impact of, 169. See also desegregation
Jackson, Mahalia, 51
Jansen, William, 70
Jefferson, Thomas, 7
Jefferson County, Alabama, racism in, 168
Jencks, Christopher, 124, 125
Jenkins, H. Harrison, 31
J4J (Journey for Justice), 198–99
Jim Crow laws, 22
John Philip Sousa Middle School (Washington, DC), 146
Johnson, Derrick, 157–58
Johnson, Lyndon B.: Daley and, 59; desegregation, support for, 90–91; Elementary and Secondary Education Act, signing of, 32, 90; fiscal policy under, 41; Marshall, appointment of, 35, 88; Watts insurrection and, 83
Johnson, Rucker C., 211
Journey for Justice (J4J), 198–99
judiciary, 94–95. See also Supreme Court
K12 Inc., 137
Kaminsky, Todd, 206
Keating, Kenneth, 71–72
Kennedy, Robert, 72
Kennedy, Ted, 74, 108, 144
Kenwood, Chicago, Blacks in, 54–55
Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, 87
Keynes, John Maynard, 40–41
Kilfoyle, Marla, 200–201, 206
Kimpton, Lawrence A., 54
King, Martin Luther, III, 13
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 27, 60, 64–65, 84, 140, 201
Klunder, Bruce, 139
Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP), 131, 170, 187, 197
Kobrovsky, Larry, 122
Kojima, Aiko, 178
Kozol, Jonathan, 66, 118, 124, 143–44
Krasowski, Joseph, 68
Kryczka, Nicholas, 120
Laats, Adam, 14–15
Landsmark, Ted, 62–63, 88
Langley, Grant, 152–53
LaRaviere, Troy, 192–93, 195–97, 205, 212–13
Latinx communities: support for school choice, 12, 141
“law and order,” 92, 102
Lee, Anna, 51
legal challenges to school choice, 208–10
Lewis, John, 17–19, 21, 27, 36, 63
Liberation Schools, 78, 79
libertarianism, 46
Lightfoot, Lori, 205
Little Rock, Arkansas: Little Rock Central High School, 20–21; public school closures in, 23–24
localism: community control movement, 78–83, 124; community empowerment, 176, 178–80; defensive localism, 55; local level, importance to school choice resistance movement, 190; local school board elections, dark money in, 183
Los Angeles: charter schools conflict in, 184–85; school choice in, 184–86; Watts insurrection, 83
Louisiana: Brown v. Board of Education, response to, 23; Citizens’ Councils in, 24; voucher program, legal challenge to, 209. See also New Orleans
Love, Stephanie, 154, 159, 178–79, 198
MacLean, Nancy, 47
magnet schools, 97, 103–4, 119–23 Malcolm X Liberation University, 140, 149 “Manifesto for New Directions in the Education of Black Children” (Fuller and Smith), 152
Marshall, Thurgood, 35, 64, 88
Maryland, student activism in, 203
massive resistance to school desegregation, 19–21, 27, 31, 35, 43
McGrath, Christopher, 206
McRae, Elizabeth Gillespie, 74
Meier, Deborah, 118, 180
Memphis: charter schools in, 179; Memphis Lift, 158–59; resistance to school choice in, 197–98; school reform in, 154–59, 167–68
Michigan: charter schools in, 127; community control movement in, 80; school per
formance in, 181. See also Detroit
Mill, John Stuart, 3
Milliken v. Bradley, 87–88, 91, 95, 120, 121
Milton and Rose D. Friedman Foundation (EdChoice), 9, 114, 123, 164
Milwaukee: school choice in, 146, 210–11; school reform efforts in, 149–54; voucher system in, 125–26
Milwaukee Parental Choice Program, 103, 153
Minnesota: charter schools in, 103, 129–30; school segregation, legal challenges to, 208
Mississippi: Brown v. Board of Education, response to, 23; Citizens’ Councils in, 24; continued school segregation in, 25; Evers v. Jackson Municipal Separate School District, 34; federal education funding for, 32; Freedom of Choice in the United States (FOCUS) initiative, 35–36; public funding of private education, 124; school privatization in, 26
Missouri v. Jenkins, 106
Moore, David, 197
Morgan v. Hennigan, 74
Morton, Felisha Reyes, 194
Moses, Bob, 79, 203
Murray, Patty, 138
NAACP: Boston, activities in, 74; Brown v. Board of Education and, 7; on charter schools, 13; Chicago branch, reports on school segregation, 57; in debate over school choice, 157–58; Legal Defense Fund, actions by, 121–2; Milwaukee branch, 152; school choice debate and, 157–59; school desegregation, actions on, 22, 27
National Charter Collaborative, 156
National Civil Rights Museum, 12
National Commission on Excellence in Education, 97
National Education Goals Panel, 104
National Education Standards and Improvement Council, 105
National Governors Association, 100–101
National Teaching Academy (NTA, Chicago), 198
A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education), 10, 98–101
NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act (2001), 107–10, 112, 113
Network for Public Education (NPE), 181, 200, 206
Nevada, Schwartz v. Lopez, 209
New America, Education Policy Program, 182
Newark, White flight from, 85
New Hampshire, voucher system, 124
New Jersey: charter schools in, 190, 209; Urban Hope Act, 190, 194
New Orleans: school choice in, 117, 160–61, 184; school performance in, 181
New Right, 47, 89
New Schools for Chicago, 112
NewSchools Venture Fund, 110, 113
Newsom, Gavin, 185, 208
New York City: charter schools in, 166; community control movement in, 79, 80–83; desegregation efforts, 66–69; liberals of, Friedman and, 48; teachers’ unions in, 99
New Yorkers for a Balanced Albany, 206
New York State, shifts in state legislature, 206
Nixon, Richard, 72, 89, 90–95, 96
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (2001), 107–10, 112, 113
no-excuses and school discipline, 187
nonprofit charter schools, 131–32
Norman, Keith, 158, 159
the North and northern states: racism in, 62–63; school desegregation in, impact on legislation and politics, 71–76; segregation in, 42; teachers’ unions in, 99; views of desegregation, 64–66. See also names of individual northern states
North Carolina: desegregation efforts in, 106–7; resegregation in, 167; school segregation, legal challenges to, 208
North Division High School (Milwaukee), 149–50 northern cities, desegregation orders and, 37
NPE (Network for Public Education), 200, 206
Obama, Barack: educational reform strategy, 204; Emanuel AME Church killings and, 8; mentioned, 206; Promise Neighborhoods program, 132–33; school choice, actions on, 104, 111–14; school choice, support for, 14; school choice under, 154
Obama, Michelle, 194
Oberndorf, Bill, 185
Ocean Hill-Brownsville, New York City, community control movement in, 79–81
Ohio: charter school profits, 174; Cleveland, voucher system in, 125–26; teachers’ unions in, 183
Oklahoma, Red for Ed movement in, 207
Oliver, John, 174
online education (virtual schooling, cyber schools), 135–38
Operation Transfer (Chicago), 57
Opportunity Zones, 160–61
Orfield, Gary, 95, 121, 166–67
Orrin, Cardell, 148–49, 157
Paine, Thomas, 3
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District, 147
Parks, Rosa, 64
parochial schools, 106, 125–26
Payne, Charles, 203
Penn-Nabrit, Paula, 135
Pennsylvania, cyber charters in, 137
people of color: failing public schools, reactions to (see civil rights claim to school choice, racism and); impact of poor public education on, 145–46; northern Whites’ response to, 93; voice of, 210. See also Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) individuals; Latinx communities
Philadelphia, student strikes in, 191
philanthropy supporting education reform, 110. See also Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; Eli and Edythe Broad Foundation; Walton Family Foundation
Philips, Kevin, 92
Phillips, Anna, 185
Plessy v. Ferguson, 22, 169
Podair, Jerald, 81
police in schools, 84–85
politics: of Black achievement, 78, 80; teachers in, 206–7. See also names of individual states and cities
Poor People’s Campaign (1968), 201
Porter-Gaud School (Charleston, South Carolina), 2
Powell, Lewis, 94
Prince, Edgar, 172
Prince Edward County, Virginia, public school closures in, 24, 34, 46
private schools, 25–27, 29, 86
private segregation academies, 117
profit motive in education, 13, 171, 173–74
Promise Neighborhoods program, 132–33
P.S. 144 (Harlem), 144
public education (public schools): challenges of choosing, 213; charter schools as threat to, 133; Chicago’s segregated, 57–61; closures of, 23–24, 34; criticisms of, 143; deterioration of, 27, 143, 144 (see also failure of school choice, deterioration of public education and); disdain for, 89; disinvestment in, 118, 173–76; homeschooling versus, 134; impact of race on, 165; integration of, appearance of, 34–35; LaRaviere on, 196; A Nation at Risk on, 10, 98–101; perceptions of, as violent, 84; privatization of, 25, 26, 75–76, 106, 128, 199; public opinion on, 96, 100; public school enrollment, importance of, 213–14; racial makeup of, 11–12; secession of communities from public school districts, 168–69; types of alternatives to, 4; vouchers as challenge to, 127–28
Public Funds Public Schools (PFPS), 208–9
race and racism: in education system, 188; housing covenants, 42, 50; impact on school choice failure, 165–70; racial divisions, perpetuations of, 8–9; in school choice, 4–6, 10, 11; school choice as racially neutral, 103, 104; social capital and, 178; structural racism, 39. See also civil rights claim to school choice, racism and; desegregation; integration; people of color; racism and foundations of school choice model; segregation
Race to the Top Program, 112–13, 154
Racial Imbalance Act (1965, Massachusetts), 74
racism and foundations of school choice model, 62–89; Boston, busing in, 62–64; busing controversy, media portrayals of, 76–78; Chicago, resistance to busing in, 69–70; community control movement, 78–83; desegregation, northern views of, 64–66, 70–71; desegregation, White resistance to, 88–89; inner city problems and, 83–86; New York City, school desegregation efforts in, 66–69; northern school desegregation, impact on legislation and politics, 71–76; suburbs and busing, 86–88
Rakes, Joseph, 62–63, 74, 88–89
rational choice theory, 42, 44–45
Ravitch, Diane, 110, 200
Reagan, Ronald, 48, 95–99, 101, 119
Red for Ed movement, 204–5, 206
redlining, 39, 50
Redmond Plan, 69, 120
Renaissance 2010 plan (Chicago), 112, 113, 196, 202
Republican Party, 41, 48, 89, 91–92, 172
resegregation, 147, 166–67
resisting school choice through counternarratives and coalitions, 189–214; achievement gap and, 211–12; in Charleston, South Carolina, 189, 197–98; civil rights perspective on, 210–11; coalition building, 198–203; counternarratives, 194–95; desegregation, impact on Whites, 212–13; Dickerson and, 190–92, 195; direct action and, 203–5; educators as political actors, 205–8; individual actions, 211–12; information sharing, 192–94; LaRaviere and, 192–93, 195–97; legal challenges, 208–10
Reynolds, John, 149
Rhee, Michelle, 183–84
Rickford, Russell, 78
right-to-work (anti-union) legislation, 47
Riley, Richard, 101, 104
Roberts, John, 147
Rockefeller, David, 56
Rodriquez, Refugio “Ref,” 185–86, 208
Roof, Dylann, 8
Rooks, Noliwe, 137, 174–75, 179
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 40–41
Roth, Stephen J., 86, 120
Rothstein, Richard, 212
Rouhanifard, Paymon, 190–91, 193
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 43
rural areas, online learning in, 136
Ryan, James, 88
Sadaukai, Owusu. See Fuller, Howard
Salters, David, 168
Sanders, Bernie, 162, 197
Sanders, Raynard, 162
Save Camden Public Schools, 195
Scholarships for Opportunity and Results (SOAR) Act (2003), 127
scholarship tax plans, 127
school buses, 63. See also busing
school choice: bipartisan support for, 104, 111, 159–60; Black support for, 145–46; Chicago, Friedman and school choice in, 38–61; choice districts, 9; choice schools, racial makeup of, 11–12; civil rights claim to school choice, racism and, 139–63; failure of, deterioration of public education and, 164–88; federal support of school choice movement, 90–115; freedom of choice in education, 17–37; ideology of, 117; introduction to, 1–15; racism and foundations of school choice model, 62–89; as resistance to desegregation, 27; resisting through counternarratives and coalitions, 189–214; school choices, multiplicity of, 116–38
school choice model. See racism and foundations of school choice model
school choices, multiplicity of, 116–38; alternative school movement, 118–19; charter schools, 128–33; free school movement, 118; homeschooling, 133–35; introduction to, 116–17; magnet schools, 97, 103–4, 119–23; online education (virtual schooling), 135–38; vouchers, 123–28. See also charter schools; vouchers