The Ottoman Empire: a Historical Encyclopedia [2 Volumes]

by Kia, Mehrdad;

  The last and perhaps the most surprising front was the Mediterranean, which provided the setting for a series of naval encounters between the two powers. Using the English port of Portsmouth and receiving direct support from English naval officers, the Russian fleet, which had embarked on its journey from the Baltic, sailed through the Atlantic into the Mediterranean and attacked several Greek islands, while Russian agents fanned the flames of an anti-Ottoman rebellion in the Morea. The decisive battle took place at the harbor of Çeşme (Cheshme) in July 1770, when the Russian fleet, under the command of Admiral Alexei Orlov, destroyed the Ottoman naval force and killed a large number of its sailors and officers.

  The occupation of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Crimea alarmed Prussia and the Habs­burgs. To calm them, Russia agreed to the first partition of Poland in 1772. To the relief of the European powers and the Ottoman Empire, the Pugachev Rebellion (1773–1775) distracted the Russians and forced Catherine to suppress the peasants and the Cossacks who had revolted. Both sides were ready for peace, but the sultan was insistent on retaining his suzerainty over the Crimea. Catherine ordered her capable commander, Alexander Suvorov, to attack Ottoman positions in the southern Balkans. The Russian forces defeated the Ottoman army in 1774, forcing the sultan to sue for peace and a new treaty, which was signed on July 21 at Küçük Kaynarca (Kuchuk Kaynarja), south of the Danube in present-day Bulgaria.

  The excerpt below, which provides a detailed description of the Russo-Ottoman War of 1768–1774, has been taken from the memoirs of the Hungarian born French artillery officer Baron DeTott, who served at the time as an adviser to the Ottoman government.

  The Katty-Cherif (or Imperial Mandate) by which it [i.e., war, ed.] was proclaimed, conceived in the usual form, invited all True-believers, able to bear arms, to unite under the Standard of the Faith to combat its Enemies. This Kind of Convocation, by Arrier-ban, promised a numerous Army, but it was far from promising an army composed of good Troops. Ignorance and Avarice rather chose to assemble this Multitude of Volunteers, who were not to be provided for after the War, than to employ the Janissaries, whose pay and demands would be continually increasing. It may likewise be presumed, that the Grand Seignor [the Sult, ed.], fearing to restore to this Corps the power of which his Father had been the Victim, wished only to make use of it as an addition to his Forces.

  The most essential, though, at the same time least expected, inconvenience, was the absolute want of foresight with regard to Provisions. It is the nature of Despotism continually to flatter itself, that Authority will supply the place of Providence. The Grand Visir commanded the Army, all the Ministers accompanied him: even the Registers of the Chancery followed in his Train. No doubt was entertained either of Success or Plenty; and this blind Confidence was general. …

  Emin-Pacha, without any talents necessary for the Post, either of Visir or General, blinded by self-love, believed he could preserve the one without Danger, and fill the other with Glory, and finish the War before it was well begun. His Army, continually increased by the Accession of Fanatick Mussulmen, soon became the most dangerous Enemy of the Empire. The want of Provisions, the disorder of this famished Multitude, the Pillage which attended distribution, and the Murder which followed, an authority always weak, and always despised when the administration is evidently vicious, mutually conspired to render an alteration necessary. The Grand Seignior, who, alone, really interested himself in the Success of the Army, dispatched, to the Visir, an order for some new Regulations, Emin-Pacha had the Audacity to disobey; his false Policy was mistaken, his Army defeated, and, soon after, an order, more punctually executed placed his head on the gate of the Seraglio, with this inscription: FOR NOT HAVING FOLLOWED THE PLAN OF OPERATIONS SENT HIM IMMEDIATELY FROM THE EMPEROR.

  He was succeeded by Moldovangi. This new Visir proved more enterprising, though not more able; he was defeated in like manner; but he was fortunate enough, when deprived of the Visiriat, only to lose a Place no less dangerous than eminent, and which no one could properly fill.

  To the haughty Ignorance of the Generals was added the stupid Presumption of the Subalterns; and the Turks, who took the field with a prodigious train of Artillery, but which consisted of Pieces ill mounted, and full as badly served, slaughtered in every Action by the Cannon of their Enemies, could only avenge themselves for their Disasters by accusing the Russians of cowardly Artifice. They overpower us, said they, by the Superiority of their Fire, which, in fact, it is impossible to approach; but let them leave their abominable Batteries, and encounter us like brave men hand to hand, and we shall soon see whether these Infidels can resist the slaughtering sabre of the True-Believers.

  This Multitude of wretched Fanaticks even reproached the Russians for having attacked them during the holy Season of Ramazan. …

  Sultan Mustapha, whose first care, as we have already seen, was employed on his Finances, after having lavished enormous Sums, without Success, began to bargain with his Ministers concerning the new expences they proposed; and, while they reproached him with Avarice, he blamed himself for yielding too easily, which, he said, only served to enrich the Knaves about him. It certainly was not to be supposed, that this Prince could see, without concern, his Treasures squandered, his Army mouldering away, and those Enemies whom he imagined would be subdued in the first Campaign, already victorious on the Danube, and threatening him with an Invasion in the Archipelago [the Aegean Island, ed.].

  His activity caused him to discover new Abuses every moment. He complained of them to his Ministers, never without making them tremble, but always without effect; for, had they wished to re-establish good Order, it was scarcely in their power. The Recruits, who were to join the Army from the extremity of Asia, passed the Bosphorus, and stopt at Constantinople, not so much to solicit the Porte, as to force it to their Terms.

  While the Officers were bargaining about their pay for the Campaign, these Asiatics, dispersed through the Capital, completely armed, and every night robbing every one they met, hastened the Negociation, by rendering it absolutely necessary to get rid of such a lawless Multitude. The Government, too weak to repress their Insolence, stipulated to no purpose, and ceded without shame. …

  While the feebleness of the Government made it connive at the excesses of a licentious Soldiery, the Ministers sought to conceal the War by Sea, with which the Empire was threatened. No Russian Ship had yet ever appeared at Constantinople; therefore, said they, the Russians have no Ships: or if, by chance, they have, that is nothing to the purpose, since there is no communication between the Baltic and Archipelago. Neither the Danes nor Swedes, whose Flags were known to the Turks, could overthrow this favourite argument. Shewing them Maps had no better effect, and the Divan [Sultan’s council of advisors, ed.] was not yet persuaded of the possibility of the fact, when news was brought of the Siege of Coron, the Invasion of the Morea [the Peloponnesus, ed.], and the appearance of twelve Russian Ships of the Line.

  The uncertainty of the Ministry, however, did not prevent their preparing a Maritime Force. They hastened the fitting out of thirty Men of War, and expected, with such a decided Superiority, to make amends in the Archepelago, for the losses they had suffered on the Danube. …

  The land Army, though twice destroyed, was become more numerous than ever; and the Ottoman Empire, though powerfully attacked both by Sea and Land, defending itself, on every side, with forces triple to those of its Enemies, gave itself up to all the Pride of Success, of which it entertained no doubt.

  The absence of the Troops restored tranquility to the Capital; and the presumptuous hopes of Victory kept the People in good humour. The Comte de Saint Priest [the French Ambassador, ed.] was willing to take advantage of this circumstance, to give an Entertainment, on account of the marriage of the King of France, and to amuse the Turks, was desirous of adding to the Balls and Diversions, which could only suit the Taste of the Europeans, an Illumination, and some Fireworks, which I undertook to make. The Saloon we were obliged to build for the Ball
was already finished, the Fireworks were prepared, and we were busy in arranging the Decorations, when the news of the destruction of an Army and a Fleet arrived, spread a Consternation through the City, and rendered all our Preparations useless.

  It was no longer possible to think of giving Entertainments. The Grand Seignior was in the greatest anxiety, his Ministers in despair, the People distracted, and the Capital filled with the dread of Famine and Invasion.

  Such was then the Situation of an Empire, which, a month before, had believed itself so formidable; yet Ignorance, which is always ready to flutter the Pride that accompanies it, saw nothing in this double Catastrophe, but the impenetrable decrees of Providence, to which Mortals should submit with resignation. No one considered, that an undisciplined Multitude contributes more to its own destruction than all the efforts of its Enemies. But, though the want of Discipline, alone, sufficed to destroy the land Army, at Craool, the concurrence of the most extravagant stupidity, on the part of the Admiral and his Officers, was necessary to complete the destruction of the Fleet, at Tchesmai.

  This Armament left the Strait of the Dardanelles to go in quest of the Russian Squadron; and, after passing by Chios, anchored on the coast of Asia, between the Continent and the Islands called Spalmadores, in front of the Port of Tchesmai. Some Frigates, newly built (for the Turks were ignorant of their use before this War) were stationed at the extremities of this long line, to give notice of the Enemy’s approach; and had orders to let them get entangled in this Channel, where thirty Ships riding at convenient distances, and moored with four Anchors each, lay in wait.

  This ingenious Ambuscade being thus prepared, the Russian Ships, better arranged, having doubled the Isle of Chios, and perceived the Turkish Vessels, penetrated quite to the center of their Line before the latter made any motion to get under Sail. The two Admirals, however, being laid side by side, the Russian, after having poured in his Broadside, closed with the Turk, in order to throw some Combustibles on board him, but blew up in the attempt. Hassan Pacha, then Captain of the Admiral Ship, from whom I had this account, having disengaged himself from his Enemy, thought he was out of danger, when he perceived his Stern on fire, and his ships ready to undergo the same Fate. The Crew had already thrown themselves into the Sea; he soon followed; and was fortunate enough to lay hold of a Wreck of the Enemy’s Ship, and escape the Explosion of his own; for the fire was not long before it reached the Powder-room.

  It is easy to perceive, on a calculation of the real loss on each side, that of the Russians, being far the most considerable, justified them in resolving not to renew the Attack; but the Turks, whose military Knowledge scarcely extended to the effects of Saltpetre, terrified by those it had produced, thought of nothing but being blown up, if the Russians should engage them again. Tchesmai was the Asylum, whither all the Fleet retired in the greatest disorder; and some Cannon, landed in haste, and placed on the two Capes which shut in the Port, gave supposed Security to the Fugitives.

  The Russians were, in the mean time, employed to watch the Motions of the Enemy; and the next day learned, no doubt with great astonishment, what had passed at Tches­mai. As they could only attribute this strange conduct of the Turks to a panic Terror, which will always justify attempts that otherwise would seem least likely to meet with Success, they appeared before the Harbour, with two Fireships, which they sent in. On the approach of the Russians, the Turks still terrified with what had happened the preceding day, thought more of saving themselves on Shore, than defending their Ships; but the Sight of two small Vessels, sailing into the Port, awakened in them their ideas of Conquest; and, as they took them for Deserters, far from endeavouring to sink them, they were only anxious for their safe arrival: they resolved to lay the Crews in irons, and already enjoyed the pleasure of carrying them, in Triumph, to Constantinople.

  But these supposed Deserters, entering without opposition, soon fastened down their rudders, threw out their graplings, and presently setting fire to their Vessels, the flames communicated to the whole Fleet. The Harbour of Tchesmai, encumbered with Ships, Powder, and Artillery, soon became a Volcano, which englutted the whole naval Force of the Turks.

  Though this Misfortune humbled the Ottoman Pride, the Ministry were in danger from a still more important Calamity. The Capital was threatened with a Famine; for the destruction of the Turkish Fleet, by giving the Russians the command of the Archipelago, prevented Constantinople from being furnished with Provisions. The Enemy might even force the passage of the Straits, present themselves before the Seraglio, sack the City, and prescribe their own terms to the Grand Seignior.

  The Negotiations for Peace, which had been begun a considerable Time, were only retarded by the personal Apprehension of the Visir, who commanded the Army. The Pore pressed him to finish them, desirous, at all Events, to put an end to the War. But it was certain that all the Blame of a Dishonorable Peace must fall upon him, and his Life must pay for signing such a Treaty. He therefore required an Indemnification, which was refused, under the pretence that it was not necessary, but, in reality, for the same reason that it had been demanded. The Ministers, who thought of nothing but their own Security, treated the care which he took of his, as Pusillanimity; at length, his Wife, who was one of the Grand Seignior’s Sisters, put an end to the Contest. The Sultana wrote to her Husband, that he need not fear to conclude the Treaty; and the Visir, who was of a very advanced Age, died soon after he had signed the Peace and disbanded the Army.

  Ised Pacha, who had before only possessed the Dignity of Caimakan, immediately received, with the Seals, that of Grand Visir; and the Turkish Government again concentered in the Capital, soon relapsed into its former Absurdities.

  Source: Baron DeTott, Memoirs of Baron DeTott[,] Containing the State of the Turkish Empire and the Crimea during the Late War with Russia, translated from the French (London: Printed for G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1785), Part 3:4–6, 9–15, 23–29, 202–203.

  9. TREATY OF KÜÇÜK KAYNARCA (KUCHUK KAYNARJA) (JULY 21, 1774)

  In 1768 Russia, under Catherine the Great (r. 1762–1796), embarked on a campaign to establish her rule on the northern shores of the Black Sea. After several initial successes against the Russians, the Ottoman forces suffered a devastating defeat in summer 1769. The victory allowed the czarist forces to occupy Wallachia and Moldavia (present-day Romania). A Russian naval force also attacked from the west and sank the Ottoman fleet, which had anchored at Çeşme (Cheshme), in 1770.

  After six years of war and intermittent negotiations, the Ottomans signed the peace treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (Kuchuk Kaynarja) with Russia in 1774. The treaty forced the new Ottoman sultan, Abdülhamid I (r. 1774–1789), who came to the throne after the death of Mustafa III, to accept the independence of Crimea. In 1783 the Russians annexed the Crimea and established themselves as the dominant naval force in the Black Sea. The humiliating treaty of Küçük Kaynarca was signed on July 21, 1774, , between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire after the Ottomans were defeated in the Russo-Ottoman War of 1768–1774.

  Art. I. From the present time all the hostilities and enmities which have hitherto prevailed shall cease for ever, and all hostile acts and enterprises committed on either side, whether by force of arms or in any other manner, shall be buried in an eternal oblivion, without vengeance being taken for them in any way whatever; but, on the contrary, there shall always be a perpetual, constant, and inviolable peace, as well by sea as by land. * * *

  Art. III. All the Tartar peoples—those of the Crimea, of the Budjiac, of the Kuban, the Edissans, Geambouiluks and Editshkuls—shall, without any exceptions, be acknowledged by the two Empires as free nations, and entirely independent of every foreign Power, governed by their own Sovereign, of the race of Ghenghis Khan, elected and raised to the throne by all the Tartar peoples; which Sovereign shall govern them according to their ancient laws and usages, being responsible to no foreign Power whatsoever; for which reason, neither the Court of Russia nor the Ottoman Porte shal
l interfere, under any pretext whatever, with the election of the said Khan, or in the domestic, political, civil, and internal affairs of the same; but, on the contrary, they shall acknowledge and consider the said Tartar nation, in its political and civil state, upon the same footing as the other Powers who are governed by themselves, and are dependent upon God alone. As to the ceremonies of religion, as the Tartars profess the same faith as the Mahometans [Muslims], they shall regulate themselves, with respect to His Highness, in his capacity of Grand Caliph of Mahometanism [Islam], according to the precepts prescribed to them by their law, without compromising, nevertheless, the stability of their political and civil liberty. * * *

  Art. VII. The Sublime Porte promises to protect constantly the Christian religion and its churches, and it also allows the Ministers of the Imperial Court of Russia to make, upon all occasions, representations, as well in favour of the new church at Constantinople, of which mention will be made in Article XIV, as on behalf of its officiating ministers, promising to take such representations into due consideration as being made by a confidential functionary of a neighboring and sincerely friendly Power. * * *

  Art. XI. For the convenience and advantage of the two Empires, there shall be a free and unimpeded navigation for the merchant ships belonging to the two Contracting Powers, in all seas that wash their shores. … * * *

  Source: J. C. Hurewitz, Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East: A Documentary Record, 1535–1914 (Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1956), 1:54–61. Reprinted with permission.

  10. ÇELEBI EFFENDI’S DEFENSE OF SULTAN SELIM III’S NIZAM-I JADID (NIZAM-I CEDID)