by Neil Shubin
A number of the themes in the book were derived from interactions I had with students. Freshmen at the University of Montana, the University of Pennsylvania, and Skidmore College not only provided wonderful audiences but also offered questions that inspired me as I was writing this book. The same is true of students at a number of high schools, including those at Adlai E. Stevenson High School, Downers Grove North, the Francis W. Parker School, and the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. I explored a number of the book’s ideas in my own non-majors course at the University of Chicago.
My agents, Katinka Matson, John Brockman, Max Brockman, and Russell Weinberger, have been a continual source of support. Dan Frank and Marty Asher formed a powerful editorial team, helping me frame the book during rough drafts and polish it during later ones. Production, assembly, and copyediting derived from the often heroic efforts of Jill Verrillo and Ellen Feldman with the help of Ingrid Sterner, Teresa Gardstein, and Jenna Bagnini. The entire team at Pantheon has been a joy to work with.
My wife, Michele, kept things going at home during weekend writing escapes; tolerated many a date night discussing the Harvard Computers, Marie Tharp, and zircons; and read innumerable drafts of chapters, including those that ended on the literary equivalent of the cutting-room floor. Her endurance, intelligence, and love made this project possible. Michele and our children, Hannah and Nathaniel, are my deep connections to the universe I celebrate every day.
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
Unless otherwise noted, all illustrations are by Kalliopi Monoyios.
1.1 Photographs of the Greenland crew courtesy of Bill Amaral; used with permission
2.1 Photograph of the “Harvard Computers,” 1913, courtesy of the Harvard College Observatory; used with permission
3.1 Photograph of Beta Pictoris by the European Southern Observatory; rights granted under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)
3.2 Photograph from Zion Canyon on Earth by George Alexander Grant for the National Parks Service; image in the public domain. Photograph of Victoria Crater on Mars by NASA/JPL–Caltech/Cornell University; image in the public domain
4.1 Portrait of Seymour Benzer courtesy of the Archives, California Institute of Technology; used with permission
4.2 Photographs of Hindostan limestone tombstones courtesy of the Indiana Geological Society; used with permission
5.1 Portrait of Elso Barghoorn courtesy of the Harvard University Archives, Harvard University Press; used with permission
5.2 Portrait of Anton van Leeuwenhoek by Jan Verkolje (I); image in the public domain. Illustration of van Leeuwenhoek’s microscope courtesy of Michael W. Davidson at Florida State University; used with permission
5.3 Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Domenico Cresti da Passignano; image in the public domain. Etchings by Galileo Galilei, 1638, in the public domain
5.4 Portrait of Preston Cloud courtesy of the Department of Special Collections, Davidson Library, University of California at Santa Barbara; used with permission
6.1 Photograph of Glossopteris fossilized leaf courtesy of the Swedish Museum of Natural History. Photographer: Yvonne Arremo; used with permission
6.2 Alfred Wegener portrait courtesy of the Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Germany; used with permission
6.3 Harry Hess portrait courtesy of the Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.; used with permission
6.4 Photograph of Bruce Heezen and Marie Tharp from the Marie Tharp Estate, courtesy of Fiona Schiano-Yacopina; used with permission
6.5 Map by Bruce Heezen and Marie Tharp; painted by Heinrich Berann; used with permission
6.6 John Tuzo Wilson portrait courtesy of the Ontario Science Centre (www.ontariosciencecentre.ca); used with persission
7.1 Photographs of cliff in Nova Scotia by the author
7.2 Portrait of William Smith by Hugues Fourau; image in the public domain. Photograph of John Phillips, 1907; image in the public domain. Map by William Smith, published 1815; image in the public domain
8.1 Photograph of petrified forest reproduced with the permission of Natural Resources Canada 2011, courtesy of the Geological Survey of Canada (Photographer: Lyn Anglin). Photograph of fossil wood from Kaelin et al., “Comparison of Vitrified and Unvitrified Eocene Woody Tissues by TMAH Thermochemolysis—Implications for the Early Stages of the Formation of Vitrinite,” Geochemical Transactions 7 (2006): 9. Image used under Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)
9.1 Camp Century photograph from A. Kovacs, “Camp Century Revisited: A Pictorial View—1969,” Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory Special Report 150 (July 1970): 44, 49; image in the public domain
9.2 Photograph of Louis Agassiz circa 1860; image in the public domain
9.3 Etching of James Croll by unknown artist, published in Popular Science Monthly 51 (August 1897): 445; image in the public domain
9.4 Portrait of Milutin Milankovitch by Paja Jovanovic´ (1859–1957); image in the public domain
9.5 Photograph of Dorothy Garrod courtesy of Mrs. Kennedy Shaw and her daughter, Mrs. Caroline Burkitt. Photograph in possession of Pamela Jane Smith; used with permission
INDEX
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.
acid rain, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
Africa, 3.1, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
fossil hunting in, 7.1, 10.1
hominid fossils found in, 10.1, bm1.1n
rift formation in, 1.1, 10.1, 10.2
South America’s congruity with, 6.1, 6.2
Agassiz, Louis, 9.1, 9.2
ice age theory of, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3
agriculture, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3
alcohol
algae, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 10.1, 10.2, bm1.1n
allometry, n
Alvarez, Luis
Alvarez, Walter, 7.1, bm1.1n
Amaral, Bill, 1.1, 1.2, bm1.1n
American Museum of Natural History, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1
American Scientist
Amundsen, Roald, 6.1, 8.1
Anders, William
Andromeda Galaxy
animal distributions, 5.1, 7.1
Antarctica, 6.1, 6.2, 9.1, bm1.1n
fossil hunting in
freezing of, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, bm1.1n
ring current of, 8.1, 8.2, bm1.1n
volcanic ring around
warm wet phase of, 8.1, 8.2
Apollo missions, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1
Appalachian Mountains
argon
Army, U.S.
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory of
Arrhenius, Svante, 8.1, 8.2, bm1.1n
asteroids, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 4.2, bm1.1n
catastrophic impacts of, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, bm1.1n
water within
astronomy, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2
distance measurement in
of Harvard Computers, 2.1, 2.2
radio
red-blue color shift in
see also stars
AT&T
Bell Laboratories of
Atlantic Ocean, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 8.1, 8.2
closing and reopening of
Atlas Mountains
atom bomb, 2.1, 9.1, 9.2
atoms, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 8.1, 9.1
electrons of, 2.1, 2.2, 5.1, 5.2, 9.1
radioactive decay of, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 9.1, bm1.1n
atoms, nuclei of
carbon
fusion reactions of, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1
global temperatures measured by
neutrons of, 4.1, 9.1, 9.2
oxygen, 4.1, 9.1
protons of, 2.1, 9.1
see also elements
Australia, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 8.1, 8.2
drift of
Jack Hills of, 3.1, bm1.1n
Axel Heiberg Island
Babylonians, ancient
Bacon, Francis
bact
eria, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3
Barbour, Thomas, 5.1, 5.2, bm1.1n
Barghoorn, Elso, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, bm1.1n
Basinger, James
Beardmore Glacier
Benzer, Seymour, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, bm1.1n
Berbers
Berner, Robert
Beta Pictoris, 3.1, 3.2
big bang, theory of, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 3.2
background noise left by
date of, 2.1, 2.2
immediate aftermath of
biological clocks
molecular
see also circadian clocks
BLaG paper, 8.1, bm1.1n
Blanford, William and Henry
body, human, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, bm1.1n
bipedalism of, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, bm1.1n
cells of, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2
color perception in
constituent elements of, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 8.1
controlling growth of
effect of Jupiter on shape of, 3.1, 3.2
head structure of
kidney of, 3.1, 4.1
liver function of
metabolism of, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1
oxygen utilized by, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, bm1.1n
prenatal development of, 3.1, 6.1
reproduction of, 3.1, 3.2
Russian nesting doll organization of, 2.1, 2.2
water content of, 3.1, 3.2
see also evolution
body temperatures, 4.1, 6.1
Borlaug, Norman
boulders, glacially transported, 6.1, 9.1
Bowers, Henry
brain, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 8.1, 10.1
pineal gland in
Richter’s patch of, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
size and
British Museum
Bunker, Archie (character)
Caesar, Julius
calcium carbonate
Caledonian Mountains
calendars
decentralized Roman, 4.1, 4.2
Gregorian
lunar vs. solar
in rocks
California, University of, at Berkeley, 2.1, 7.1
Camp Century, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, bm1.1n–7n
Canada, 3.1, 4.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 8.1
cancers
sleep patterns and, 4.1, bm1.1n–9n
Cape Johnson, USS
carbon, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 6.1
atomic nucleus of
versions of
in volcanic ejecta, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
carbon, atmospheric, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
global temperatures affected by, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, bm1.1n
recycling of, 3.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
carbon 14, 9.1, bm1.1n
catastrophes, global, 1.1, 7.1
evidence of, 7.1, 7.2
extinctions caused by, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, bm1.1n–3n
in fossil record, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
kings-of-the-hill species left by, 7.1, 7.2
mechanisms of, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, bm1.1n
survivors of, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
catastrophism, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
cave bears
Cenozoic era
cesium
Chicago, University of, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1
circadian clocks, 4.1, 4.2, bm1.1n–9n
controlling mechanism of, 4.1, 4.2
of flies, 4.1, 4.2
of hamsters, 4.1, 4.2
light as trigger of, 4.1, 4.2
mutant, 4.1, 4.2, bm1.1n–8n
time perception vs.
see also sleep patterns
climate change, see ice ages; temperatures, global
Cloud, Preston Ercelle, Jr., 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, bm1.1n
coal, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1
cobalt, 2.1, 2.2
Colbert, Edwin, 8.1, 8.2, bm1.1n
cold war
Project Iceworm of
color perception, 8.1, bm1.1n
color pigmentation
Columbia University, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1
comets, 3.1, 3.2
Hale-Bopp, 3.1, bm1.1n
Hartley 2, 3.1, bm1.1n–7n
water ice of, 3.1, bm1.1n–7n
communications technology
Connecticut, 1.1, 1.2
constellations, 2.1, 2.2
continental drift, 6.1, 7.1, bm1.1n–2n, 8.1
of ancient supercontinent, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 8.1, 8.2
in Atlantic closing and reopening
atmospheric oxygen and, 6.1, 6.2, bm1.1n
conveyor belt image of, 6.1, 6.2
deep-sea trenches in, 6.1, 6.2
and distribution of similar fossils, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 8.1
earthquakes and, 6.1, 6.2
mid-ocean ridge and rift valleys of, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 8.1
NASA measurement of
recycling of ocean floor in, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 8.1
seafloor spreading in, 6.1, 6.2, 8.1
of southern continents, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 8.1, 8.2
see also plate tectonics
Copernicus, Nicolaus
coral reefs
cores, drill, see drill cores
cosmochemistry, n
Cretaceous period, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, bm1.1n
Croll, James, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
Cuvier, Baron Georges, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, bm1.1n
Dansgaard, Willi
dark energy
Darlington, Philip, 5.1, 5.2, bm1.1n
crocodile attack on, 5.1, bm1.1n
Darwin, Charles, 2.1, 5.1, 10.1, 10.2, bm1.1n
Dawkins, Richard, n
deep-sea trenches, 6.1, 6.2
demolition derbies
Denmark, 1.1, 9.1, 10.1, bm1.1n
Descartes, René
DeVito, Danny
Devonian era
diet, 9.1, bm1.1n–8n
color perception and
dinosaurs, 1.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 8.1
in bridge abutment, 1.1, bm1.1n
extinction of, 7.1, 7.2, bm1.1n, bm1.2n
prosauropod
DNA, prl.1, prl.2, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2
of color vision
error-correction apparatus of
in molecular clock
Native American
see also genes, genetic factors
Dominy, Nathaniel, 8.1, bm1.1n
drill cores, 3.1, 6.1, 7.1
ice, 9.1, bm1.1n
from seafloors, 6.1, 8.1
dust clouds, 3.1, 3.2
Earth
age of, prl.1, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 10.1, bm1.1n
ancient, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1
asteroid collision with, 4.1, 4.2
geological changes of, 3.1, 3.2
habitable zone location of, 3.1, 3.2
heat balance of
Jupiter’s effect on
orbital changes of, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
orbit of
rotations of, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3
slowing rotations of, 4.1, 4.2
tilted rotation axis of, 4.1, 4.2, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3
wobble of, 9.1, 9.2
Earth, water on, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 6.1, 8.1, 8.2
atmospheric carbon removed by, 3.1, 8.1
origins of, 3.1, bm1.1n–7n
relative abundance of, 3.1, 3.2
rotation slowed by
see also oceans
Earth-moon system
see also moon
earthquakes, 6.1, 6.2
Echo 1 satellite
Einstein, Albert
E = mc2 equation of, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
einsteinium
electromagnetism, 2.1, 3.1
electrons, 2.1, 2.2, 5.1, 5.2, 9.1
elements, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 7.1
heavier, 2.1, 2.2
in human body, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 8.1
new, atomic bomb’s creation of
periodic table of, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
in stellar fuel, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
volatile, 4.1, 4.2
see also a
toms
Elzevir, Louis
Enceladus
end-Cretaceous event, 7.1, 7.2, bm1.1n, bm1.2n
energy, 2.1, 2.2, 5.1, 6.1
dark
mass and, 2.1, 2.2
from photosynthesis
Enewetak island
England, 7.1, 7.2, 9.1
erosion, 3.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7
Etosha National Park
Eureka Sound
Europa
Europe, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 9.1, 9.2
evolution, 10.1, 10.2, bm1.1n
natural selection in, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2, bm1.1n–8n
prediction of
Ewing, Maurice “Doc”, 6.1, 6.2
extinctions, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, bm1.1n–3n, bm1.2n
of Antarctic life
end-Cretaceous event, 7.1, 7.2, bm1.1n, bm1.2n
of ice age mammals
family histories, 2.1, 4.1
family trees, 2.1, 8.1, 10.1
Fathometer
Fermi, Enrico
fermium
“Field Kit to Characterize Physical, Chemical, and Spatial Aspects of Potential Primate Foods” (Lucas et al.), 8.1, bm1.1n
fish, 2.1, 8.1
bony
gill bones of
jawless, kidney of
land adaptions developed by, 3.1, 10.1, 10.2
pineal gland of
fission reactions
Fleming, Williamina, 2.1, 2.2
flies
molecular forces and
mutant, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1
size-control genes of, 5.1, bm1.1n
fossil record, 1.1, 1.2
global catastrophes in, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
head structure in
most abundant species in
multicelled animals in
shelled animals in, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, 7.1, 7.2, bm1.1n
whales in
fossils, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1
amphibian, 8.1, 8.2
Arctic redwood trees, 8.1, 8.2
coral reefs
dinosaur, see dinosaurs
earliest, 4.1, 5.1, bm1.1n
in Greenland, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 7.1
hominid, 10.1, bm1.1n
hunting for, 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 7.1, 8.1, 10.1
mammal, 1.1, 1.2, 7.1, 10.1
plant, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
seashell, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 9.1
shared Appalachian-European
similar, continental distribution of, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 8.1
stratigraphic layers characterized by
Fourier transform analysis
Framingham Heart Study
fusion reactions, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1
