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BURCKHARDT, JACOB. The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy. Vol. I. Colophon ed., New York, 1958.
CALVESI, MAURIZIO. Treasures of the Vatican. Trans. J. Emmons, Geneva, 1962.
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA, 1907–12, and NEW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA, 1967.
CHADWICK, OWEN. The Reformation. London, 1964.
CHAMBERLIN, E. R. The Bad Popes. New York, 1969.
CHAMBERS, DAVID SANDERSON. “The Economic Predicament of Renaissance Cardinals,” Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History. Vol III. Lincoln, Neb., 1966.
COUGHLAN, ROBERT. The World of Michelangelo: 1415–1564. New York, 1966.
DICKENS, A. G. Reformation and Society in 16th Century Europe. New York, 1966.
ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS. The Praise of Folly. Trans. H. H. Hudson. Princeton, 1941.
FUNCK-BRENTANO, FRANTZ. The Renaissance. Trans. New York, 1936.
GILBERT, FELIX. Machiavelli and Guicciardini. Princeton, 1965.
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REFERENCE NOTES
The wars, politics and international relations of the Papacy and the Italian states, and the circumstances of Luther’s break and its aftermath, are not annotated below because they are amply recorded in standard secondary histories and studies of the Renaissance and Reformation.
1. “STAKE IN A GAME OF TENNIS”: G. G. Coulton, Social Life in Britain from the Conquest to the Reformation, Cambridge, 1918, 204.
2. “STARVED FOR THE WORD OF GOD”: q. Owst, 31–2.
3. “IF THE PREACHER”: q. Howell, 251–2.
4. “TO TRANSFORM ALL CHRISTIANS”: Todd, 97; Olin, xxi.
5. DOMENICHI’S tractatus: O’Malley, 211–14. “BABYLON, THE MOTHER OF …”: q. ibid., 211. “DIGNITY OF THE CHURCH”: q. ibid., 86, n. 33.
6. MACHIAVELLI, “SUPREME FELICITY”: The Prince, Bk II, chap. II.
7. JACOB THE RICH: Gilmore, 60. AGOSTINO CHIGI: Funck-Brentano, 37.
8. ASSASSINATION OF GIULIANO DE MEDICI: Burckhardt, 78.
9. “CRUELEST, WORST …”: q. ibid., 52.
10. “FULL OF CONTEMPT”: q. ibid., 42.
11. HE “LEFT THE HOSPITAL”: Burchard, 130.
12. PANDOLFO PETRUCCI: Burckhardt, 50. FEDERIGO OF URBINO: ibid., 65.
13. NICHOLAS v, “TO CREATE SOLID …”: q. Lees-Milne, 124, and Mallett, 47.
1. Sixtus IV
1. “THREE EVIL GENIUSES”: New Cambridge, 77.
2. SIXTUS’ CAREER AND CHARACTER: Burckhardt, 123; Hughes, 389–90; Mallett, 53–6; Aubenas, 87–90.
3. SIXTUS MADE 34 CARDINALS: Chambers, 290; Jedin, 88.
4. ARCHEPISCOPAL SEES TO BOYS OF EIGHT AND ELEVEN: Hughes, 442.
5. CARDINAL RIARIO’S BANQUET: Pastor, IV, 243–5.
6. PIUS II’S LETTER TO BORGIA: q. Routh, 83.
7. MANIFESTO EQUATING SIXTUS WITH SATAN: Aubenas, 88, and Pastor, IV, 136, n. 2.
8. PAZZI PLOT: Aubenas, 76–7; Hughes, 393–4.
9. “PLEASE GOD THAT YOUR HOLINESS …”: q. Aubenas, 77.
10. ARCHBISHOP ZAMOMETIC, FORTUNES OF: Jedin, 105.
2. Innocent VIII
1. INNOCENT’S CHARACTER AND HABITS: Pastor, V, 246–70; Burckhardt, 126.
2. BORGIA BRIBES OF 25,000 DUCATS: Mallett, 100. “SO FALSE AND PROUD”: q. Pastor, V, 237.
3. “SEND A GOOD LETTER …”: IBID., 242.
4. MORTGAGED THE PAPAL TIARA: Ullmann, 319.
5. “THE LORD DESIRETH NOT …”: q. New Cambridge, 77.
6. FORGING FIFTY PAPAL BULLS: Hughes, 402.
7. CARDINAL ANTOINE DUPRAT: ibid., 447, n. 1.
8. LIVES OF THE CARDINALS: Pastor, V, 354, 370; Chambers, 291, 304, 307.
9. GIOVANNI DE’ MEDICI’S ECCLESIASTICAL ADVANCEMENT: Chamberlin, 211.
10. LORENZO’S LETTER TO HIS SON: q. Pastor, V, 358–9; Olin, xv; Mallett, 52. First published in Fabroni’s Life of Lorenzo, 1784.
11. GENOA “WOULD NOT HESITATE …”: q. Pastor,V, 246.
12. “PUSILLANIMITY … OF THE POPE”: q. Pastor,V, 269.
13. “GENOESE SAILOR”: q. ibid., 269.
14. “THE BEAST OF THE APOCALYPSE”: q. O‘Malley, 234.
15. “WHAT MORTAL POWER”: q. Hughes, 345.
16. PRINCE DJEM, RIVALRY FOR AND SUBSIDIES: Guicciardini, 70; Aubenas, 140.
17. DJEM’S ARRIVAL IN ROME: Pastor, V, 299.
18. INNOCENT’S DYING WISH: Pastor, V, 320.
3. Alexander VI
1. “FLEE, WE ARE IN THE HANDS …”: q. Mallett, 120. BULLFIGHT: Schaff, 442; Mallett, 108.
2. FOUR MULE-LOADS OF BULLION: Mallett, 115, from Stefano Infessura’s Diario della città di Roma. Borgia’s buying of votes, with sums and promises given to each of the cardinals, is detailed in Pastor, V, 418.
3. CALIXTUS’ SENILITY: Cambridge Medieval History, VIII, 175.
4. BORGIA’S CHARACTER, RICHES AND CONDUCT: Guicciardini, chaps. II and XIII; Routh, 92–3; Mallett, 84–6; Ullmann, 319; Chamberlin, 166–71.
5. “DO UNPLEASANT THINGS”: q. Burckhardt, xix. “TOOK PAINS TO SHINE”: Sigismondo de Conti, q. Burchard, xvii. “BRILLIANTLY SKILLED”: Jacopo Gherardi da Volterra, q. Mallett, 84. “IRON TO A MAGNET”: q. Routh, 93. “UNDERSTOOD MONEY MATTERS”: q. Burchard, xvii.
6. BORGIA’S FAMILY: Guicciardini, 124; Ullmann, 319. VANOZZA REPLACED HER MOTHER: Burchard, xv.
7. PATERNITY OF THE EIGHTH CHILD: Mallett, 181.
8. ALEXANDER’S PROCESSION TO THE LA: teranBurchard, q. Mallett, 120.
9. ELEVEN NEW CARDINALS: Chamberlin, 199.
10. DELLA ROVERE, A “LOUD EXCLAMATION”: Pastor, V, 418.
11. TOTAL OF 43 CARDINALS: Jedin, 88.
12. REFORM THE MOST FREQUENT TOPIC: Chadwick, 20.
13. CHARLES VIII’S PLANS FOR INVASION OF ITALY: Guicciardini, 46–8. INTENTION TO DEPOSE POPE: New Cambridge, 302. CARDINAL DELLA ROVERE’S ROLE: ibid., 348–50.
14. “SO FULL OF VICES”: Guicciardini, 69.
15. “TERRIBLE BEYOND ANYTHING”: ibid., 68.
16. GEORGE MEREDITH: The Egoist.
17. LUDOVICO IL MORO INVITES CHARLES VIN: New Cambridge, 296.
18. “INNUMERABLE CALAMITIES”: Guicciardini, 48.
19. ARMED PARADE OF THE FRENCH IN ROME: Pastor, V, 451–2.
20. “REQUISITIONS ARE FEARFUL”: ibid., 454.
21. SAVONAROLA: Aubenas, 130–36; Schevill, Florence, 433–55.
22. “CAUSED SUCH TERROR”: q. Coughlan, 69. his prophecy: ibid.
23. “POPES AND PRELATES”: Pastor, VI, 14–15.
24. HAILED CHARLES VIII: Schevill, Florence, 444.
25. POPE “NO LONGER A CHRISTIAN”: q. Jedin, 40.
26. 15,000 HEAR ROBERTO DA LECCE: Pastor, V, 177.
27. TWENTY IN FLORENCE ELECT OWN “POPE”: Pastor, V, 115.
28. DEATH OF JUAN, DUKE OF GANDIA: Mallett, 154–5; Chamberlin, 187–90.
29. “THE MOST GRIEVOUS DANGER”: q. Jedin, 126.
30. PROPOSED PROGRAM OF REFORM: Hale, 228; Hughes, 450.
31. LOUIS XII: Guicciardini, 139; Aubenas, 143–4.
32. “Tutto va al contrario”. Marino Sanuto, Diarii, Tom. I, Venezia, 1879, p. 1054, para. 127.
33. PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH ENVOYS: Pastor, VI, 62–4.
34. CESARE’S CAREER: Pastor, VI, 61–8. MURDERS: ibid., 75; Burckhardt, 132. WEARING A MASK: Burchard, xxii.
35. ALFONSO HACKED TO DEATH: Mallett 177–8.
36. BALLET OF THE CHESTNUTS: Burchard, 155. mares and stallions: ibid.
37. 100,000 DUCATS FOR DOWRY: Burchard, 157. EIGHTY NEW OFFICES: Hughes, 413–14.
38. CARDINAL SANGIORGIO: Jedin, 97.
39. GHASTLY TALES: Burchard, 186–7; Jedin, 97; LETTER OF FRANCESCO GONZAGA, 22 dec 1503: q. Routh, 95.
40. “NO LAW, NO DIVINITY”: q. O’Malley, 187, n. 2.
4. Julius II
1. CONCLAVE IN CASTEL SANT’ ANGELO: Pastor, VI, 186.
2. ELECTION OF PICCOLOMINI: ibid., 199–201.
3. PIUS III, “STOREHOUSE OF ALL VIRTUES”: q. ibid, “HIGHEST HOPES”: ibid., 200.
4. “IMMODERATE … PROMISES”: Guicciardini, q. Routh, 99.
5. JULIUS, CHARACTER AND CONDUCT: Pastor, VI, 213;G ilbert, 125–7. LITTLE BELL ON TABLE: Gilbert, 124.
6. IN HELMET AND MAIL: Guicciardini, q. Routh, 100–1. “CERTAINLY A SIGHT VERY UNCOMMON”: ibid.
7. “DETERMINED TO VINDICATE”: Pastor, VI, 329–31. “TO HANG A COUNCIL”: ibid, “TO LEAD AN ARMY TO ROME”: ibid.
8. “THE FRENCH IN ROME …”: q. ibid. “Fuori i barbari!”: Aubenas, 156.
9. MATTHÄUS SCHINNER: Pastor, VI, 325; Oechsli, 33, 54.
10. ERASMUS ON JULIUS: Querela Pads of 1517, q. New Cambridge, I, 82; Aubenas, 243.
11. “A MONK DANCING IN SPURS”: q. Pastor, VI, 360. 96 “OUTSIDE OF ALL REASON”: q. Gilbert, 123.
12. CRITIC QUOTED, “BECAUSE THEY GRIEVED”: q. Young, 276.
13. BUILDING ST. PETER’S: Vasari; Ullmann, 317; Mitchell, 52.
14. Il ruinante. Lees-Milne, 142.
15. JULIUS AND MICHELANGELO: Vasari, chap, on Michelangelo, passim.
16. “PUT A SWORD THERE”: Vasari, 266.
17. REDISCOVERY OF LAOCOON: Pastor, VI, 488; Calvesi, 125; Hibbert, Notes, 325; Coughlan, 103; Lees-Milne, 141; Rodocanachi, Jules II, 58–60.
18. CARDINAL WROTE AN ODE TO IT: Rodocanachi, Jules II, 60, n. 2. FRANCIS I TRIED TO CLAIM IT: Hibbert, 222.
19. JOHN COLET’S SERMON: Olin, 31–9.
20. BOLOGNESE JURIST WARNED: Giovanni Gozzadini, q. Jedin, 40.
21. EGIDIO OF VITERBO’S ORATION: Olin, 44–53; Pastor, VI, 407.
22. PRESERVE HIS ASCETIC PALLOR: Burckhardt, 169.
23. DECREES OF THE FIFTH LATERAN: Hughes, 480; New Cambridge, 92.
24. FRENCH “VANISHED LIKE MIST”: q. Pastor, VI, 416.
25. THANKSGIVING PROCESSION: Aubenas, 165.
26. ERASMUS, Julius Exclusus: q. Hale, 226.
27. “VIRTUE WITHOUT POWER”: q. Pastor, VI, 452.
5. Leo X
1. “LET US ENJOY IT”: Pastor, VIII, 76.
2. LEO’S CHARACTER AND CONDUCT: ibid., 71 ff.; Guicciardini and Vettori, q. Routh, 104–05; Chamberlin, 209–48.
3. LEO’S LATERAN PROCESSION: Gregorovius, VIII, 180–8; Lortz, 92.
4. LEO’S EXPENDITURES: Pastor, VII, 341; VIII, 99–100; Hughes, 434.
5. MARBLE FROM PIETRASANTA: Vasari, 271. “IMPOSSIBLE TO DEAL WITH”: deT olnay, 4.
6. WOULD HAVE MADE RAPHAEL A CARDINAL: Vasari, 231.
7. CHIGI’S BANQUET: Gregorovius, VIII, 244; Pastor, VIII, 117.
8. LEO’S HABITS AND APPEARANCE: Pastor, VII, VIII, passim; Calvesi, 149. PAOLO GIOVIO QUOTED: Chamberlin, 218.
9. MICHELANGELO, “A THOUSAND YEARS FROM NOW”: deTolnay, 68.
10. CARDINAL BIBBIENA: Pastor, VIII, 111–12. “GOD BE PRAISED”: Ranke, I, 54; Mitchell, 14.
11. PROCESSION OF THE WHITE ELEPHANT: Pastor, VII, 75.
12. GREEK “IMMORTALS” INVOKED: Mitchell, 88.
13. “HAVING MADE A TREATY …”: q. Chamberlin, 228.
14. CONCORDAT OF BOLOGNA: Hughes, 448–9.
15. PLANNING TO PALM OFF A COPY: Gregorovius, VIII, 210.
16. LEO’S NEPOTISM: Young, 297, and others.
17. ENVOY SEIZED DESPITE A SAFE-CONDUCT: Chamberlin, 231; WAR ON URBINO: AUBENAS, 182;PASTOR, VIII, 92.
18. PETRUCCI CONSPIRACY: Hughes, 431; Mitchell, 109–14; Schaff, 486.
19. CREATED 31 CARDINALS IN A DAY: Young, 299.
20. BAGLIONI BEHEADED: ibid., 300.
21. LEO’S BULLFIGHT: Pastor, VIII, 173.
22. RISING DISSENT: ibid., VIII, 177; Hughes, 491.
23. CORTESE AND PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA: Pastor, VIII, 407.
24. ERASMUS, “AS TO THESE SUPREME PONTIFFS”: Colloquies, 33, 98–9. “PESTILENCE TO CHRISTENDOM”: q. Huizinga, 141.
25. MACHIAVELLI CASTIGATES CHURCH: Discourses, Bk I, chap. XII.
26. “THIS BARBAROUS DOMINATION”: The Prince, chap. XXVI. “REVERENCE FOR THE PAPACY”: Guicciardini, 149.
27. COLET, CHURCH A MACHINE FOR MAKING MONEY: Hale, 232.
28. INDULGENCES FOR FUTURE SINS:
Schaff, 766.
29. TETZEL’S SALES: Dickens, 61. “I HAVE HERE …”: q. Chamberlin, 241–2.
30. LEO MORE CONCERNED BY RAPHAEL’S DEATH: Lees-Milne, 147.
31. “HELL-HOUND IN ROME”: q. Dickens, 23.
32. LEO’S DEATH AND DEBTS: HUGHES, 431, 434; Rodocanachi, Adrian VI, 7; Vettori, from his Storia d’Italia, q. Routh, 104–05. LAMPOON: Mitchell, 122.
33. CARDINALS HISSED: Mitchell, 125.
6. Clement VII
1. CARDINAL SCHINNER MISSED ELECTION BY TWO VOTES: Oechsli, 25.
2. ELECTION OF ADRIAN: Pastor, IX, 25–31, 45; “JUST TO WASTE THE MORNING”: ibid., 329. ATTRIBUTED TO THE HOLY GHOST: Guicciardini, 330. HIS CHARACTER: Mitchell, 126; Burckhardt, 169.
3. “UNDER PAIN OF ETERNAL DAMNATION”: q. Pastor, IX, 91.
4. “THOSE STEEPED IN SIN”: q. ibid., 92.
5. “EVERYONE TREMBLES …”: q. ibid., 94–5.
6. ADRIAN’S MEASURES: Ranke, I, 73–4; Pastor, IX, 52, 70–4 ff. “SACRED THINGS … MISUSED”: q. Lortz, 95. “HOW MUCH … DEPENDS”: Ranke, I, 74; Pastor, IX, 125.
7. CLEMENT’S CHARACTER: Guicciardini, q. Chamberlin, 258; Routh, 104. “GIVES AWAY NOTHING”: Marco Foscari, q. Chamberlin, 260. VETTORI, “FROM A GREAT …”: from his Sommario, q. Gilbert, 252.
8. CHARLES V ON POPE’S DOUBLE DEALING: q. Chamberlin, 265.
9. TWO ENGLISH ENVOYS: q. Lopez, 39.
10. COLONNA UPRISING: Guicciardini, 372.
11. “WE ARE ON THE BRINK OF RUIN”: Giberti, q. Chamberlin, 273.
12. SACK OF ROME: Pastor, IX, 370–429; Partner, Renaissance Rome, 31. “A STONE TO COMPASSION”: Pastor, IX, 399, and n. 4.
13. “HELL HAS NOTHING TO COMPARE”: ibid., 400.
14. COMMENTS OF IMPERIAL ARMY COMMISSARY: Mercurino de Gattinara, q. Routh, 106–09. CAJETAN: q. Hughes, 474, n. 4.
15. CLEMENT’S SIEGE OF FLORENCE: Brion, 167, and others.
16. CLEMENT’S DEATH: Guicciardini, q. Chamberlin, 285. CORPSE HACKED: Brion, 167.
17. “UNABLE TO RECOVER ANYTHING OF MY OWN”: q. Chamberlin, 285.
Chapter Four
THE BRITISH LOSE AMERICA
WORKS CONSULTED
Primary Sources
ALMON, JOHN. Anecdotes of the Life of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. 3 vols. London, 1793.
BARRINGTON, SHUTE, BISHOP OF DURHAM. The Political Life of William Wildman, Viscount Barrington, by his brother. London, 1814.
BURKE, EDMUND. Correspondence. Ed. C. W. Fitzwilliam and R. Bourke. 4 vols. London, 1844.
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