The American Military - A Narrative History

by Brad D. Lookingbill

  The long war in Iraq wound down during 2010, when the Obama administration announced a renaming of the mission – Operation New Dawn. While U.S. forces played a reduced role in population security, fewer than 50,000 soldiers remained under Odierno's command to support and to train Iraqis. “Today, when I fly over Baghdad, I see hope with bright lights and busy traffic,” the general reported. “Now,” added Obama, “it is time to turn the page.”

  As the Obama administration planned for the end of the war, the American military continued retooling for the twenty-first century. Defense analysts held that state-of-the-art technology generated a revolution in military affairs, which they signified with the letters RMA. Accordingly, transformational planning optimized weapons programs to deliver swift but sure victories with fewer casualties. With a full spectrum of capabilities, men and women in uniform seemed poised to dominate battlefields worldwide. Some foresaw a future in which America's supremacy over all levels of combat intensity would render standing armies and navies obsolete. Of course, similar claims were made when sea power or atomic warfare supposedly relegated combat infantrymen to the dustbin of history. Irrespective of RMA concepts, no clear solution to the complex problem of national defense presented itself.

  Washington D.C. ranked as the leading investor in unmanned platforms for national defense. By 2010, the Pentagon possessed more than 7,000 aerial drones and some 12,000 ground robots. Among the unmanned aerial vehicles, or UAVs, the Predator and the Reaper captured useful intelligence via video surveillance. Moreover, they launched laser-guided bombs and missiles against ground targets. The Air Force piloted most of the drone attacks, although the CIA and JSOC also ran classified programs. An assortment of navybots operated at sea, including unmanned surface vessels, or USVs, and unmanned underwater vehicles, or UUVs. Even though drones provided an effective force multiplier, they remained vulnerable to signal jamming and to computer hacking. During the military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, unmanned warfare offered a supplement rather than a replacement for troops.

  The American military engaged in cyber warfare, which encompassed a new kind of battlefield. Service members conducted operations to penetrate an opponent's computers or networks in order to cause damage. Working at terminals, they blocked and hunted down electronic intruders. Furthermore, they infected the information systems that supported nascent WMD programs. An array of cyber weapons suppressed enemy air and sea defenses and disrupted their command-and-control centers. As the director of the National Security Agency, General Keith B. Alexander became the first head of U.S. Cyber Command, or USCYBERCOM.

  In terms of manpower, U. S. forces remained broadly inclusive of different races, classes, and genders. Southerners amounted to the most overrepresented demographic cohort – nearly 40 percent of the force structure. In late 2010, Congress passed a repeal of the public law regarding sexual orientation known as “Don't ask, Don't tell.” The change in policy went into effect the next year. While developing “gender neutral” standards for specific jobs, the Army, Navy, and Air Force began to integrate women into combat units. The Pentagon worried about recruitment and retention across the branches, but new enlistments remained steady during a deepening economic recession. With less than 1.4 million Americans in uniform, the all-volunteer force was smaller in size than at any time since its inception.

  Both physically and intellectually, the uniformed services remained one of the most demanding of all professions. Global missions required adaptive personnel, because success on the ground often depended upon interagency operability, language skills, cultural awareness, political expertise, and personal integrity. Advancements in battlefield medicine and body armor enabled more and more of the wounded to survive attacks. Whatever the importance of firepower, the American experience in diverse theaters of operations underscored the advantages of “small change” soldiering going forward.

  In early 2011, U.S. forces battled the Taliban for control of Marjah, a city in the Helmand Province of Afghanistan. Partnering with the Afghan National Army, they secured their objective while expanding their activities in the opium-producing region. Civilians entered thereafter to hire residents for governmental and non-governmental projects. They built schools, homes, health clinics, and irrigation canals. An agricultural program encouraged farmers to raise wheat, vegetables, and fruit trees, thereby displacing the poppy fields that funded the insurgency.

  Though dispersed by military action, the insurgents found sanctuaries in other parts of the country. Concentrating on the Kandahar Province, U.S. forces launched an offensive to clear, hold, and build once again. Petraeus assessed American progress with optimism: “We've got our teeth in the enemy's jugular now, and we're not going to let go.”

  Killing bin Laden

  For most Americans, the long hunt for bin Laden remained the most important objective of the Global War on Terror. With each video and audio recording that he released on the lam, distressed males in the Muslim world found new inspiration for jihad. His flight from the “infidels” recalled the exile once endured by the Prophet Mohammed, or so his followers imagined. Over the years, U.S. forces failed to catch al-Qaeda's elusive leader. Their search focused on North and South Waziristan in Pakistan, where intelligence analysts presumed he hid.

  Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden's deputy, assumed a greater role in directing al-Qaeda operations from Pakistani enclaves. An advocate for what he called the “World Islamic Front Against Jews and Crusaders,” he maintained contact with terrorists in pursuit of martyrdom. He dreamed of acquiring nuclear, chemical, or biological devices that would annihilate the U.S. He even discussed purchasing “nuclear suitcase bombs from the black market of Central Asia.” While avoiding cell phones and handheld radios, his communication system primarily involved couriers. He somehow survived air strikes by American drones that flew into Pakistan, although lower-level operatives perished in them.

  “We will kill bin Laden,” Obama stated during a presidential debate. Once in the White House, he tasked Leon Panetta, the CIA director, with creating a detailed operational plan for upgrading the manhunt. Unfortunately, the trail for “Crankshaft” – the CIA's nickname for the world's most wanted terrorist – appeared cold after his narrow escape from Tora Bora. In the summer of 2010, Panetta received a new lead in regard to the al-Qaeda leader. The CIA tracked a man in Pakistan named Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, who served as bin Laden's courier. Thanks to satellite surveillance, agents monitored his residence in Abbottabad, a small city deep inside Pakistan. For months, they studied his activities behind the high walls that surrounded the three-story main house, a guesthouse, and a few outbuildings. They caught glimpses of a tall, reclusive person, who lived inside the compound.

  Though unable to identify the person of interest, Washington D.C. began to plan possible military action. The planning did not include contacting or collaborating with Pakistan, because the government in Islamabad seemed likely to leak the information to America's enemies. In addition to the fortress-like compound, Abbottabad contained the Pakistan Military Academy. Ostensibly, Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence, or ISI, knew something about the conspicuous site and its occupants. The Air Force suggested a strike with a B-2 Spirit bomber, but the risk of collateral damage and Pakistani casualties concerned the Pentagon. Confident in the skill of their assault teams, JSOC wanted to storm the compound with SEALs. During early 2011, the Obama administration weighed the options before taking action.

  The commander-in-chief decided to send SEAL Team-6, which officials called the Naval Special Warfare Development Group, or DEVGRU. Under the auspices of the CIA, their operation was code-named Neptune Spear. It involved two MH-60 Black Hawks modified with stealth technology. The helicopters carried 24 SEALs from eastern Afghanistan into northeastern Pakistan. A Pakistani translator as well as a bomb-sniffing dog accompanied them. Furthermore, two MH-47 Chinooks entered Pakistan to provide support to the Americans in the event of an ambush. As the mission commenced, a special ele
ctronic warfare aircraft jammed Pakistani radar. An unarmed drone circled high above Abbottabad, thereby capturing real-time video and audio while feeding it to U.S. commanders.

  Before the dawning of May 2, 2011, the SEALs reached the compound in Abbottabad. However, the first Black Hawk pitched forward and crashed within the outer wall. Despite the jarring accident, no injuries occurred. The second Black Hawk safely landed as planned in a nearby field. After blowing open the gates, team members sprinted through the courtyard. Their night-vision goggles enabled them to locate their objectives in the darkness. They faced short bursts of hostile fire at the guesthouse but swiftly secured it and entered the main house.

  Moving up the narrow stairwell, the SEALs engaged bin Laden on the third floor. Their shots struck his chest and head, which they reported with code-words over their radios. “For God and country,” a SEAL declared to his comrades, “I pass Geronimo, Geronimo E.K.I.A.” In other words, America's enemy was killed in action.

  While putting bin Laden's corpse into a body bag, the SEALs secured the entire compound within 40 minutes. They took DNA samples and multiple photographs before interrogating the women and children in the residence. Four other occupants perished in the raid, including al-Kuwaiti and one of bin Laden's sons. One of bin Laden's wives received a wound in her leg. Furthermore, the 38,000-square-foot site yielded intelligence items such as CDs, DVDs, flash drives, memory cards, and computer hardware. The evidence indicated the existence of an active command-and-control center for al-Qaeda, whose leaders plotted to assassinate both Petraeus and Obama in the coming months. Shortly before departing the scene, the SEALs used C-4 charges to detonate the damaged Black Hawk.

  The SEALs returned safely to Jalalabad Air Base in Afghanistan. With various tests confirming the identity of the corpse, a military detail soon loaded it onto a V-22 Osprey and flew it to the U.S.S. Carl Vinson in the North Arabian Sea. Americans prepared the body in accordance with Islamic precepts. Afterward, they heaved it into the water.

  A month later, al-Qaeda selected al-Zawahiri to lead the terrorist network. Still under U.S. indictment for his previous embassy bombings, he warned of reprisal attacks against Americans for killing bin Laden. While rumors of an internal power struggle spread, the operational planning devolved from the high command to the assorted franchises within Pakistan and around the globe. The appeal of bin Laden's movement survived, but the American military brought a mass murderer of innocent men, women, and children to justice.

  Conclusion

  The dramatic events of 9/11 aroused the nation, as the armed forces of the U.S. roared into action. Although bin Laden once sneered that American troops were “just a paper tiger,” they lit up his sanctuaries in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom. The Bush administration soon turned their sights upon Iraq, where Hussein defied the armistice that halted the first Gulf War. Even if the allegations about WMD stockpiles proved mistaken, Operation Iraqi Freedom toppled an outlaw regime. The sectarian conflicts overshadowed the American victory, however, while the foot soldiers of the Taliban reentered the Afghan provinces. Operating in two theaters at the same time stressed U.S. forces. Fortunately, Petraeus found effective ways to counter the insurgencies. After the Obama administration refocused upon Afghanistan, killing bin Laden inside Pakistan provided significant momentum to the war effort. Whatever the future of the Global War on Terror, the U.S. degraded the capabilities of al-Qaeda.

  Following a decade of fighting in faraway lands, the U.S. began to bring the troops home. For most men and women in uniform, the protracted struggle against international terrorism involved two major military operations undermined by ineffective post-invasion regimens. The American way of war, which accentuated quick and decisive battles, did not initially deliver population security, economic assistance, and stable governance to defeated countries. With armed might unable to end the tumults in an expedient manner, anti-American ideologies fueled lengthy insurgencies. Nation-building offered new hope, although WMD proliferation remained a grave danger to the world. Approximately 6,000 Americans were killed in action overall, while over 40,000 suffered wounds. The financial costs mounted, thereby exacerbating a fiscal crisis in Washington D.C. Eventually, the doctrine of COIN enabled the military to claim success abroad. On a strategic level, the U.S. achieved measurable progress in a long slog.

  Even though diehards persisted in shadowy realms, the U.S. showed unparalleled strength in most facets of military affairs. The American military worked with allies to conduct offensive campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq, which knocked enemy forces off balance. While the Obama administration planned for an exit from the former, the final convoy of U.S. soldiers left the latter as scheduled by 2012. Petraeus, who retired from the Army after a remarkable career that spanned four decades, took charge of the CIA but soon resigned. With federal budget cuts looming, Panetta succeeded Gates as the Secretary of Defense. An armada of drones continued to hit targets inside Pakistan and other nations. Special Forces skillfully disrupted al-Qaeda and its affiliates in an era of persistent conflict. Popular uprisings in Iran, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Bahrain, Yemen, and Syria signified an “Arab Spring,” although fanatical elements sought to exploit the uncertain outcomes.

  As the age of globalization reached a point of inflection, America's warriors moved forward together with an extraordinary history of resilience and resourcefulness behind them. The Army, Navy, and Air Force constituted the most advanced military ever to exist on the face of the Earth. Of course, they appreciated a technological edge in almost every domain. Their work reinforced the myth of the mega-machine, which made humans ever more dependent upon tools and tool-makers to act. While undertaking counterterrorist and counterinsurgency operations, they accomplished near-impossible missions that enhanced national security. Some did what fighters in all wars do – kill. Others defended the U.S. in innovative and unconventional ways. With stealth and precision, a few belonged to elite commando units capable of confronting enemy forces anywhere on the planet. Like the legendary knights of yore, their collective sacrifices for the greater good exemplified the noblest form of service.

  Essential Questions

  1 How did the American military change after 9/11?

  2 In what ways were U.S. forces tested in Afghanistan and Iraq?

  3 Why was killing bin Laden such an important military objective?

  Suggested Readings

  Anderson, Terry H. Bush's Wars. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

  Atkinson, Rick. In the Company of Soldiers: A Chronicle of Combat. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.

  Bergen, Peter L. The Longest War: The Enduring Conflict between America and Al Qaeda. New York: Free Press, 2011.

  Berkowitz, Bruce. The New Face of War: How War Will Be Fought in the 21st Century. New York: Free Press, 2003.

  Cloud, David, and Greg Jaffe. The Fourth Star: Four Generals and the Epic Struggle for the Future of the United States Army. New York: Crown, 2009.

  Hahn, Peter L. Missions Accomplished? The United States and Iraq since World War I. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.

  Jones, Seth G. In the Graveyard of Empires: America's War in Afghanistan. New York: W. W. Norton, 2009.

  Kaplan, Fred. The Insurgents: David Petraeus and the Plot to Change the American Way of War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013.

  Lewis, Adrian R. The American Culture of War: The History of U.S. Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom. 2nd edition. New York: Routledge, 2012.

  Luttrell, Marcus, with Patrick Robinson. Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10. New York: Little, Brown, 2007.

  May, Ernest R., ed. The 9/11 Commission Report with Related Documents. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2007.

  Moyar, Mark. A Question of Command: Counterinsurgency from the Civil War to Iraq. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.

  Owen, Mark, with Kevin Maurer. No Easy Day: The Autobiography of a Navy Seal. Ne
w York: Dutton, 2012.

  Ricks, Thomas E. Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq. New York: Penguin, 2006.

  Scales, Robert H., Jr., and Williamson Murray. The Iraq War: A Military History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.

  Singer, P. W. Wired for War: The Robotics Revolution and Conflict in the 21st Century. New York: Penguin, 2009.

  Wright, Evan. Generation Kill: Devil Dogs, Iceman, Captain America, and the New Face of American War. New York: Putnam, 2004.

  Index

  ABC-1

  Abenaki Indians

  Abizaid, John

  Able Archer

  abolitionists

  Abrams, Creighton

  Abrams Doctrine

  Abu Ghraib

  Acadian expulsion

  Acheson, Dean

  Adams, John

  Adams, John Quincy

  Adams, Samuel

  Adams–Onís Treaty (Transcontinental Treaty)

  Advanced Base Force concept

  Afghanistan War

  Agent Orange

  Aguinaldo, Emilio

  Aideed, Muhammed Farrah

  Air Corps Act

  Air Force (establishment)

  air mobility concept

  air power doctrine

  AirLand Battle Doctrine

  Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of

  al-Awlaki, Anwar

  al-Kuwaiti, Abu Ahmed

  al-Maliki, Nouri

  al-Qaeda

  al-Sadr, Muqtada

  al-Zarqawi, Abu Musab

  al-Zawahiri, Ayman

  Alamo, Battle of the

  Albany plan

  Albright, Madeleine

  Alderman, John

  Alexander, Clifford

  Alexander, E. Porter

  Alexander, Keith

  Alfred

  Alger, Russell

  Alien and Sedition Acts