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U.S. Naval Observatory, Annual Report of the Naval Observatory, Washington, D.C., Department of the Navy.
U.S. Navy, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office.
U.S. Senate, “Testimony of Robert J. Ryan before the Senate Subcommittee on Investigations, January 29, 1953,” Executive Sessions of the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, 83rd Cong., 1st sess., 1953, Senate Print 107-84, vol. 1.
Veblen, Thorstein, The Higher Learning in America, New York, B. W. Huebach, 1918.
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Villard, Henry, and James Nagel, Hemingway in Love and War, Boston, Northeastern University Press, 1995.
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Wallace, Henry A., “Who Plays the Part of Joseph?” Wallace’s Farmer, September 27, 1912.
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Index
Aberdeen Proving Ground, 159, 198, 232, 235, 240, 242, 256, 263, 277, 280, 296, 322, 313, 325; in First World War, 134, 136–38, 140–42, 144, 151–54, 264; 1936 reorganization of, 195, 234, 240, 242; and University of Pennsylvania, 257–59; and veterans of First World War, 178, 179, 195, 205, 223, 236, 240, 259
Abramowitz, Milton, 206, 250, 285, 291, 313, 314, 325; and LORAN, 250–52, 277, 285
Académie des Sciences (France), 19, 20, 22–24, 34, 35, 75, 234
accuracy of computations, 167, 168, 219, 259, 263, 267, 304, 319; astronomical accuracy, 92, 162; checking for errors, 21, 166, 184, 186, 214, 215; differencing (see mathematical methods); double computation, 30, 40. See also comets, precision of prediction for
actuaries, 2, 4, 60, 61, 93, 102, 124, 189, 190, 236, 237. See also insurance
Adams, Henry, 96, 97, 100
Addams, Jane, 100
adding machines. See calculating machines
Admiralty Computing Service, 261–64, 281–83, 295, 301, 325
Aerospace Research Laboratories, 312, 315
agricultural statistics. See statistics, agricultural
Aiken, Howard, 229–33, 254, 287, 288, 300, 325; and Mark I computing machine, 230, 231, 272, 277, 287; and Second World War, 272, 275, 277
aircraft. See aviation
Airy, George, 49–54, 59, 62, 64, 65, 113, 120, 132, 321, 325
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 56, 57, 316
American Mathematical Society, 202, 205, 209, 236, 291
American Nautical Almanac and Ephemeris. See Nautical Almanac, American
American Telephone and Telegraph, 170, 179. See also Bell Telephone Laboratories
Ängström, Jonas, 119–21
Applied Mathematics Panel, 253–55, 258, 264–69, 271–74, 276, 278–86, 288, 289, 313, 317, 325; and computing machines, 268, 271, 277; demobilization of, 276–78, 285, 288, 289; and lack of postwar vision, 279, 280; and Rockefeller Foundation, 264
Archibald, Raymond Claire, 211, 235–39, 242, 246, 285–88, 293, 294, 311, 325; chair of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 236, 237, 256, 257, 261; and Mathematical Tables Project, 291, 294; and National Research Council, 238, 239, 256; and Rockefeller Foundation, 238, 257
army. See United States Army
Astin, Allen, 309, 310
Astronomer Royal (England), 15, 21, 27, 47, 50, 53, 92, 124. See also Royal G
reenwich Observatory
astronomy, 5–7, 11–25, 27, 29, 30, 37–40, 43, 48–50, 55, 71, 79, 83, 87, 92, 98–100, 103, 116, 124, 128, 138, 143, 181, 191–94, 237, 239, 274; data reduction in, 50, 64, 82, 108, 120, 136, 172, 193, 230; and orbital calculations, 11–16, 20–25, 46, 48, 59–62, 70, 88, 119–21, 123–25, 130, 148, 178, 230, 301, 302, 319; and Claudius Ptolemy and the Almagest, 5. See also calculus, and three-body problem; comets; Halley’s comet
Atanasoff, John Vincent, 225–33, 281, 311, 325; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 268; and computing machines, 226–29, 232, 268
atomic bomb. See Manhattan Project
aviation, 127, 241. See also Langley Field
Babbage, Charles, 5, 6, 38–45, 47, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 69, 104, 172, 173, 230, 321, 325; and analytical engine, 44, 230; and difference engine, 41–44, 53, 54, 56, 69, 92, 173, 215, 288
Baldwin, Frank, 93, 106
ballistics, 3, 4, 6, 7, 72, 74, 97, 98, 128–31, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 143, 151, 152, 181, 189, 195, 239, 247, 253, 261, 283, 289, 296; and antiaircraft artillery, 129, 130, 132, 137, 141, 278; calculations in, 130–32, 136, 156, 235, 259, 271, 281; and differential analyzer, 178, 234, 258–61, 268, 283; Moulton theory in, 141, 142, 179; Siacci theory, 129, 130, 141; trajectories, 264, 280, 281, 283, 289, 301, 302
Barlow, Peter, 5, 211
Bell Telephone Laboratories, 178–80, 189, 216, 221, 223, 226–28, 232, 233, 237, 242, 249, 253, 261, 268, 272, 280, 287, 310, 311, 326; mathematics and computing division of, 169–71, 179, 180, 221, 227. See also American Telephone and Telegraph
Bennett, A. A., 179, 211, 326; chair of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 195, 196, 234, 235
Berry, Clifford, 229, 311
Bessel function, 125, 184
Bethe, Hans, 218, 219
binary arithmetic. See mathematical methods
Biometrics Laboratory. See Galton Laboratory
Blanch, Gertrude, 212–17, 219, 234, 239, 247–50, 258, 269–73, 289, 299–304, 307, 308–17, 318, 322, 326; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 254, 272; background and education of, 206–9; and Hans Bethe, 219; and ElectroData Corporation, 311, 312; and Institute for Numerical Analysis, 299–304, 310; and President Lyndon Johnson, 316, 317; loyalty and security problems of, 248, 249, 307, 307–10, 312
Bliss, Gilbert, 178, 195, 259, 260, 278
bombing calculations, 129, 141, 247, 253, 266, 269, 270, 285
Bowditch, Ingersoll, 66
Brainerd, John, 257–60
Brandt, Alva, 221, 226
Briggs, Henry, 6
Briggs, Lyman, 202, 203, 205, 210, 211, 217, 244, 257, 258, 284, 289
British Admiralty, 27–29, 33, 47–50, 172, 196, 281, 282
British Association for the Advancement of Science Mathematical Tables Committee. See Mathematical Tables Committee (BAAS)
Brown, Ernest, 192
Brunsviga. See calculating machines, Brunsviga
Bureau du Cadastre, 33–38, 40, 51, 326
Burroughs, William Seward, 93, 96, 326
Bush, Vannevar, 178–90, 201, 326
Cahn, Albert, 300, 301, 303, 306, 307
calculating machines, 171, 177, 220, 221, 272; Atanasoff’s machine (ABC), 227–29, 232, 268, 281, 311; Bell Labs, complex calculator of, 223, 224, 227, 232; Brunsviga, 106, 117, 121, 154, 155, 169, 174, 262, 326; Burroughs Arithmometer, 93, 96; Felt Comptometer, 93, 96; isograph computing machine, 222, 226; Mark I (Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator), 231, 232, 277, 287; mass production of, 7, 41, 92, 93, 96, 117, 121, 142, 157, 165, 171, 188, 198, 207, 217, 220, 221, 225, 229, 230, 233, 242, 244, 255, 283, 285, 287, 301, 326; Millionaire and Mercedes calculators 171; Model K, 223, 227; Monroe calculator, 183, 230; National Accounting Machine, 172–74, 263; Pascal adding mechanism, 41, 93; price of compared to computer salary, 95, 220, 223, 231, 268; Sustrand adding machines, 220, 243; Thomas Arithmometer, 92, 93. See also difference engine; differential analyzer; punched card machines; computers, electronic stored programs; International Business Machines
calculus, 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 12–16, 26, 27, 59, 81, 100, 106, 121, 182, 258, 321, 322; and three-body problem, 14–16, 20, 28, 79, 128, 192
California, University of, at Los Angeles. See UCLA
Cambridge University, 11, 38, 50, 51, 261
Carnegie Institute of Washington, 116, 117, 180. See also Newcomb, Simon, Institute for the Exact Sciences
Carnegie, Andrew, 4, 116, 117
Carnot, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite, 37
Cave-Brown-Cave, Beatrice, 111, 112, 130, 131
Cave-Brown-Cave, Frances, 111, 112, 130, 168, 263, 326
Census. See United States Census
Chicago World’s Fair. See World’s Columbian Exposition
Civil War (American), 70–79, 81, 129
Clairaut, Alexis Claude, 16, 17, 20–25, 27, 37, 53, 107, 120, 121, 128, 321, 326
Clem, Mary, 167–69
Coast Survey Office. See United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
Cold War, 5, 7, 194, 248, 249, 298, 304–6
Colmar, Charles Xavier Thomas de, 92, 93, 327
Columbia University, 94, 133, 136, 140, 166, 170, 195, 231, 303; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 266, 267, 273, 274, 285; Astronomical Computing Bureau (see Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau); and Mathematical Tables Project, 202–5, 216; and Soviet visitors, 194, 248, 249; Statistical Computing Office, 190–94
comets, 72, 120, 130, 301, 302; of Maria Mitchell, 61, 62; precision of prediction for, 15, 23, 24, 49, 120–23, 318–21. See also Halley’s comet
Committee for Conducting Statistical Inquiries into the Measurable Characteristics of Plants and Animals, 106–8
Communist Party. See Cold War; Soviet Union; Mathematical Tables Project, security within
complex arithmetic. See mathematical methods; calculating machines
Computation Laboratory. See Mathematical Tables Project
Computers, electronic stored programs, 5, 7, 230, 272, 273, 285, 287–89, 299, 303, 304, 311–15, 318, 319, 321. See also calculating machines; ENIAC; UNIVAC
computers, human, 4, 7, 48, 53, 70, 98, 120, 172, 276, 288, 293; and agriculture, 159, 166, 188; and ballistics, 74, 129, 130, 132, 136, 140, 141, 144, 151, 152, 153, 260, 261, 271, 283; and biology, 106, 108, 110, 130; boys as, 50–52, 59, 113, 132, 321; and calculating machines, 7, 69, 92, 93, 96, 120, 142, 157, 165, 166, 168, 171, 188, 213, 217, 220–23, 225, 226, 231, 234, 242, 255, 258, 259, 274, 285, 287, 291, 312; and clerical labor, 49, 52, 81, 94, 95, 96, 126, 147, 198, 256, 287, 292; compared to machines, 43, 54, 70, 114, 168, 231, 267, 268, 275, 288, 303; compared to operators, 164, 168, 231, 258, 259, 267; cost of calculation by, 67, 79, 83, 84, 95, 143, 160, 223, 227, 231, 259, 267, 268; division of labor among (see division of labor); education and training of, 7, 51, 59, 68, 76, 78, 106, 113, 132, 133, 141, 156, 196, 210, 212, 252, 258, 259, 261, 273, 282; and electronic programmable computers, 231, 263, 264, 273, 285, 288, 295, 296, 302–4, 312, 313, 316, 318, 319, 312; instructions and plans for, 30, 36, 37, 52, 63, 78, 120, 124, 201, 213; labor discontent among, 52, 83, 86, 113, 114, 131, 151, 292–94; management of, 68, 70, 78, 113, 114, 131, 133, 136, 137, 144, 167, 196, 197, 203, 214, 215, 216, 263, 269, 277, 278, 301, 321; and mathematical tables, 125, 184, 185, 232, 281, 285, 313, 314; and mathematics, 78, 81, 121, 140–42, 159; and meteorology, 76, 77, 143; professional institutions for, 7, 173, 179, 181, 197, 236, 239; professionalization of, 7, 177, 181, 239, 243, 255, 285, 286; professional literature for, 7, 157, 177, 179–81, 185, 186, 195, 199, 236–39, 257, 261, 272, 286, 312–14; reference books for, 63, 84, 156, 157, 177; social status of, 19, 24, 36, 52, 67, 71, 110, 113, 133, 141, 167, 196, 200, 212, 221, 253, 276, 280, 283, 288; and statistics, 106, 108, 116, 117, 148, 188; and surveying, 65, 72, 78, 93, 159; wages of, 52, 64, 67, 79, 82–84, 95, 111, 113, 160, 220, 223, 247, 259, 267, 268; and war, 71–73, 74, 126–43, 145, 151, 253, 269, 313; and women, 24, 61, 81–88, 102, 103, 106, 110–12, 126, 138–40, 147, 152, 167, 168, 170, 189, 190, 218, 230, 238, 252, 253, 256, 2
58–61, 276, 282, 303; working conditions of, 51, 53, 64, 76, 77, 84, 86, 87, 95, 96, 111–13, 117, 142, 144, 170, 171, 210, 215, 217, 218, 220, 221, 250, 260, 263, 268, 269, 291, 300, 301. See also Aberdeen Proving Ground; Babbage, Charles; Bureau Cadastre; Connaissance des Temps; de Prony, Gaspard Marie Riche; Harvard University, Observatory; Mathematical Tables Project; Nautical Almanac, American; Nautical Almanac, British; Royal Greenwich Observatory
computing forms, 37, 52, 54, 63, 76, 77, 94, 143, 147, 148, 213–15, 217, 219, 220, 246
Computing, Tabulating and Recording Company (CTR). See International Business Machines
Comrie, Leslie J., 154–57, 172, 179, 186, 192, 215, 219, 221, 240, 242, 263, 276, 287, 288, 311, 321, 326; and British Nautical Almanac, 172–74, 196; and calculating machines, 171, 172, 174, 193, 261, 263; and Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 196, 237, 257; and Mathematical Tables Committee, 173, 174; and Mathematical Tables Project, 211, 215, 251, 252; and Scientific Computing Service, 196, 197, 239, 261
Condon, Edward, 289–91, 305, 306, 309
Connaissance des Temps, 24, 29–31, 36, 65, 68, 75
Cornell University, 140, 166, 178, 208, 209, 218
corn-hog ratio, 150, 151
cottage industries. See division of labor
Courant, Richard, 253, 267, 279, 281, 283, 284
Cowles, Alfred, 186–90, 225, 327
Cowles Commission for Economic Research, 188, 195, 327
Crommelin, Andrew, 119–21, 123, 130, 179, 318, 319, 321, 327
Crowell, Philip, 121, 327
Curtiss, John, 219, 290–92, 295, 296, 299, 300, 302, 303, 309, 313; and Mathematical Tables Project, 219, 290–94, 298, 299
d’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 23, 24, 325
Dantzig, George, 295, 296
Darwin, Charles, 102–5, 107
Davis, Charles Henry, 57–68, 74, 75, 78, 81, 113, 181, 232, 327; and Shakespeare, 58, 64, 71; and United States Congress, 67, 68, 70
Davis, H. T., 180–88, 202, 203, 211, 219, 225, 239, 311, 327; and Indiana University computing lab, 183–86; and Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 195, 196, 201, 237; and Tables of Higher Mathematical Functions, 185, 186, 188
de Prony, Gaspard Marie Riche, 34–38, 40, 43, 45, 46, 51, 92, 215, 275, 321, 327
When Computers Were Human Page 53
