decimal angle measure, 34, 38, 40
Dickens, Charles, 46, 52, 104
difference engine, 43, 44, 53, 54, 69, 92, 172, 173, 287, 288, 327; Airy’s opinion of, 53, 54; and American Nautical Almanac, 69, 70, 242; of Charles Babbage (see Babbage, Charles); and L. J. Comrie, 173; at Institute for Numerical Analysis, 301; of George and Edvard Scheutz, 69, 70, 92, 173
differencing. See mathematical methods
differential analyzer, 178, 179, 190, 260, 261, 268, 272, 281, 287, 327; of Aberdeen Proving Ground, 234, 235, 258, 259; differential equations and, 121, 130, 143, 148, 166, 178, 194, 218, 229, 234, 267, 327; of Germany, 281, 283; of the University of Pennsylvania, 258, 259, 261
division of labor, 6, 24–27, 36–38, 40, 41, 45, 55, 75–77, 88, 99, 116, 118, 120, 163, 172, 242, 256, 258, 273, 275, 301; in cottage industry, 30, 33, 37; in factory methods, 30, 46, 47, 53, 54, 95, 96, 100, 101, 213, 214
Doolittle, Myrrick, 79, 136, 156, 274, 327; and least squares technique, 78, 81, 93, 159–62, 165, 166, 187
Dudley Observatory, 69, 70
Dunkin, Edwin, 51, 52
Eckert, J. Presper, 272, 302, 319, 327
Eckert, Wallace J., 192–94, 216, 231, 237, 238, 253, 257, 267, 270, 274, 302, 313, 319, 327; and American Nautical Almanac, 241–43; and Mathematical Tables Project, 246; Orange Book of, 194–95, 231, 274; and security, 194, 248, 249
Econometric Society, 189
Economics. See statistics, economic; social sciences
Edinburgh Mathematics Laboratory, 124, 125, 156, 184
Einstein, Albert, 119, 205, 273
Eisenhart, Luther, 238, 239, 256
electrical engineering, 7, 99, 181, 229, 258, 272
ElectroData Corporation, 311, 312
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 55, 59
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), 261, 272, 287, 288, 302, 313, 319, 327; and Mathematical Tables Project, 257, 258, 295, 296
ephemerides, 30, 33, 48, 49, 53, 62, 68–70, 77, 120, 130, 137, 168, 192, 193, 240, 318, 319
errors. See accuracy of computations; comets, precision of prediction for
factories. See division of labor
Felt, Dorr, 93, 96
Feynman, Richard, 275
First World War, 3, 126–34, 138, 139, 142, 145, 146, 151, 152–54, 156, 159, 169, 174, 177, 182, 180, 183, 191, 195, 205, 232, 235, 240, 263
Flamsteed, John, 92
Food Administration. See United States Food Administration
French Revolution. See de Prony, Gaspard Marie Riche; metric system
Froelich, Clara, 170, 171, 179, 216, 221–24, 311, 328
Fry, Thornton, 142, 170, 171, 183, 189, 195, 201, 216, 222, 223, 268, 284, 328; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 253, 280, 283; and Mathematical Tables and other Aids to Computation, 178–81; isograph computing machine of, 222, 223, 226
Fuller, Margaret, 62
Galilei, Galileo, 6, 128
Galton Laboratory, 108–10, 112, 116–18, 150, 155–58, 169, 172, 196, 237, 328 (see also Tracts for Computers); in first world war, 125–31, 133, 151, 154 Note: when the cross ref. entry is italicized the See or See also flips to roman type]
Galton, Francis, 103–6, 110, 111, 118, 131, 137, 169, 172, 173. See also statistics, correlation
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 63, 77, 78, 81, 84; Theoria motus corporum coelestium 63, 78
General Electric Corporation, 99, 180, 278; computing division of, 179, 190
George Washington University, 138
Germany, 99, 100, 182, 276; computing offices of, 256, 280–84, 301, 302
Glover, James, 4, 189, 190, 201, 209, 328
Goldstine, Adele, 260, 261, 287, 313, 328
Gould, Benjamin, 69, 70
Great Depression, 2, 7, 174, 177, 180, 186, 201, 209, 220, 272, 287, 289. See also Work Projects Administration
Greenwich Observatory. See Royal Greenwich Observatory
Gulliver’s Travels. See Swift, Jonathan
Halley, Edmund, 11–16, 21, 27, 38, 46, 51, 53, 60, 91, 107, 120, 124, 125, 148, 318, 319, 321, 328. See also Halley’s comet
Halley’s comet, 11–16, 20–25, 27, 28, 36, 37, 46, 48, 60, 103, 125, 128, 130, 150, 328; 1682 return, 11, 14, 15, 22, 24; 1758 return, 15, 16, 20–24, 37, 48; 1835 return, 46, 48, 49, 119; 1910 return, 119–22, 123, 179, 182; 1986 return, 318–21; 2061 return, 322. See also comets
Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 312–14, 322
Harrison, John, 28, 29
Harvard University, 57–59, 62, 67, 68, 79, 91, 99, 133, 182, 183, 208, 218, 222, 229, 230–32, 254, 266, 267; and Mark I Calculating Machine, 229–32, 272, 275, 277; and National Youth Administration, 229; Observatory, 56, 62, 66, 77, 82–88, 99, 112, 113, 229, 230; Radcliffe College, 83, 103, 189, 190, 208
Herschel, Caroline, 39
Herschel, John, 39, 40
Herschel, William, 39, 46
H.M.S. Pinafore. See Observatory Pinafore
Hollerith, Herman, 94–96, 145, 146, 288. See International Business Machines; punched card machines
Hoover, Herbert, 146–51, 311
Hopper, Grace, 254, 300
House Un-American Activities Committee, 299, 305–10
Hunter College for Women, 209, 221, 260
Indiana University, 183, 184, 195
Industrial Revolution, 5, 311
Institute for Advanced Study, 205, 217, 245, 266, 285, 292, 295
Institute for Numerical Analysis, 298–306, 309–12; computing office of, 301–4; and political turmoil, 304–10
Institute for the Exact Sciences. See Newcomb, Simon
insurance, 4, 44, 47, 60, 66, 93, 102, 124, 164, 237, 278, 318. See also actuaries
International Business Machines, 164, 166, 188, 190, 192–94, 226, 227, 233, 244, 247, 267, 270, 272, 303, 311; Card-Programmed Calculator, 303, 311; and Columbia University, 190–95, 242; as CTR Company, 146, 159, 163; and Harvard University, 231; Model 701 computer, 311; Model 601 tabulator, 193, 225; System 360 computer, 314, 315. See also Watson, Thomas J.
Iowa State College, 150, 164–66, 187, 188, 194, 198, 225–27, 229, 266, 268, 311; Statistical Computing Laboratory, 166, 169, 187, 188, 194, 199, 221, 225, 303, 328
isograph. See Fry, Thornton
Japan, 180, 237, 256, 276, 278, 285
Jupiter, 14, 15, 20, 23, 48, 59, 121, 192, 321
Kaimowitz, Gittel. See Blanch, Gertrude
Kepler, Johannes, 6, 14
Krampe, Charlotte, 238, 257
labor conflicts, 52, 113, 292, 293, 294. See also computers, human; division of labor
Lalande, Joseph, 16, 18–20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 37, 61, 321, 328
Lanczos, Cornelius, 273, 328
Langley Field, 256, 276
Laputa, mythical kingdom of, 21, 43, 104, 137, 168. See also Swift, Jonathan
Le Verrier, Urban Jean Joseph, 59, 60, 64, 328
least squares, 78, 161, 162, 225, 295, 303, 328; adjustment of surveys by, 78, 81, 93, 160–62, 165; and punched card machines, 162, 165; statistical analysis with, 161–66, 187, 225, 227. See also Doolittle, Myrrick
Lee, Alice, 109–12, 201
Lepaute, Nicole-Reine, 16, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 37, 81, 91, 321, 328
linear programming. See mathematical methods
Littlewood, John, 130, 261
logarithms, 6, 36, 91, 92, 107, 125, 157, 199
Long Range Navigation (LORAN), 249–53, 269, 277, 289, 328
longitude, methods of determining, 35, 50, 65, 73, 74, 77, 104, 159, 253; chronometric method, 27–29, 47, 49, 66; lunar distance method, 27–29, 47, 129
LORAN. See Long Range Navigation
Lovelace, Ada, 44
Lowan, Arnold, 234, 239, 242–53, 258, 287, 298–300, 307, 313, 314, 329; background and education of, 203–6; and John Curtiss, 291–94, 298, 299; and efforts to continue MTP, 245, 247, 251, 254, 255, 289–92,; and promotion of MTP, 216–19, 244; in the Second World War, 246–50, 267–71, 273, 280, 283–85, 294, 295, 296; and security clearance, 248, 249; and star
t of MTP, 206, 209–12, 214–16; and John von Neumann, 245, 264
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, 50, 329
Manhattan Project, 134, 273–75, 284, 288, 301, 306, 307, 313, 329; and Mathematical Tables Project, 273; T-5 computing group of, 275
Martin, Artemis, 98
Mars, 62, 69, 70, 87, 319
Maskelyne, Nevil, 27–33, 35, 37, 40, 41, 46, 47, 51, 57, 62–64, 91, 120, 129, 156, 215, 329
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 60, 62, 152, 178, 179, 217, 244, 249–51, 253, 272, 286
mass production, 7, 91–93, 95, 100–1, 145, 158
mathematical ballistics. See ballistics
mathematical methods: binary arithmetic, 79, 80, 222–24, 227; calculus (see calculus); complex arithmetic, 169, 171, 221–25, 230, 267; differencing, 37, 215; interpolation, 31, 32, 41, 263; least squares (see least squares); linear programming, 295, 296, 303, 304; monte carlo techniques, 304; probability theory, 265; simultaneous equations, 225–27, 230, 268, 295, 303, 304; numerical integration (also called mechanical quadrature and method of small arcs), 121–24, 130, 156; polynomials and roots, 32, 222, 223; trigonometry, 34–38, 40, 41, 50, 73, 136, 258. See also progressive digiting
Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 178–81, 195–97, 211, 234, 237–39, 243, 246, 256, 257, 329; and Mathematical Tables Project, 210–12, 246; computer conference of, 285–87; Journal of, 257, 261, 286, 294, 299, 311
Mathematical Tables Committee (BAAS), 173, 174, 184, 197, 211, 217, 236, 261, 262
Mathematical Tables Project, 223, 232, 239, 288, 300, 301, 303, 304, 307, 312, 318, 329; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 254, 255, 258, 266, 267; approval of computing plans of, 246; and army and navy, 244, 247; background of computers in, 212, 252; begins operations, 211–12; and Hans Bethe, 218, 219; as Computation Laboratory, 290–97, 314; and computing machinery, 220, 247, 285; D-Day calculations of, 269–71; defense certification of, 246–48; division of labor within, 213, 258; efforts to disband and final days of, 244, 245, 251, 252, 254, 280, 284, 285, 289, 291, 292, 294, 298, 299, 318; error corrections and techniques of, 213–15; and Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 313, 314; handicapped workers at, 243, 276; and Harvard, 231, 232; and Cornelius Lanczos, 273; and linear programming, 295, 296, 299, 304; and LORAN/New York Hydrographic Institute, 250, 252, 256, 269, 277, 285; and Manhattan Project, 273, 274; and move to Washington, 291–99; and MTAC, 246; and NDRC, 254, 247; organization and staffing of, 200–3, 212–13, 242, 250, 253, 255, 257, 290; Planning Committee of, 213, 214, 234, 273, 284; post–Second World War status of, 283, 285, 289; as proxy for ENIAC, 295, 296; reputation of, 215–17, 219, 242, 243, 245–49, 255, 273, 280, 284, 285, 289; and scientific community, 243, 280, 291; and Second World War, 247, 255, 267, 268, 278, 280, 283; security within, 248–50, 253, 284, 285; training computers for, 258, 273; and University of Pennsylvania, 257, 258; and John von Neumann, 205, 264; and war certification, 244–48, 307; work load of, 216, 268–71, 277, 278, 280; and WPA, 201, 203, 210, 215–17, 234, 243, 244, 247, 250, 251, 255, 277. See also Blanch, Gertrude; Lowan, Arnold; National Bureau of Standards; Work Projects Administration mathematics. See mathematical methods; calculus
Mauchly, John, 272, 302, 319
Mayer, Tobias, 28, 29, 32
mechanical quadrature. See mathematical methods
meteorology, 75–77, 105, 111, 112, 124, 168. See also Richardson, Lewis Fry
method of small arcs. See mathematical methods
metric system, 33, 34, 37, 38, 40
Michigan, University of, 2–4, 166, 189, 190, 198, 209, 260, 266, 330
missiles. See ballistics, trajectories
MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Mitchell, Maria, 61–63, 68, 71, 81, 82, 84, 91, 99, 329
Mitchell, William, 62, 76, 82, 329
monte carlo techniques. See mathematical methods
moon, motion of, 11, 13, 24, 27–32, 41, 60, 62, 79, 99, 168, 192, 193, 319
Moore School of Electrical Engineering. See Pennsylvania, University of
Moore, Joshua, 55
Morrow, Malcolm, 198–203, 210–12
Morse, Philip, 217, 218, 244–47, 249–51, 253, 255, 291–93, 296, 297, 329; and Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 312–314
Moulton, Forest Ray, 138–42, 147, 151–53, 179, 195, 253, 329
MTAC. See Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
National Academy of Sciences, 75, 133, 177, 201–3, 210, 211, 310. See also National Research Council; Work Projects Administration, 200, 201
National Bureau of Standards, 202, 206, 210, 244, 247, 255, 257, 289, 298, 300, 302–6, 309, 310, 313, 314, 318, 329; applied mathematics laboratories, 290–93. See also Mathematical Tables Project; Briggs, Lyman; Institute for Numerical Analysis
National Defense Research Committee, 240, 255, 266, 276–78, 284, 332; and Mathematical Tables Project, 247, 251, 253, 254, 329
National Research Council, 133, 177–81, 185, 195, 211, 234, 235, 238–40, 256, 329; conflict of with R. C. Archibald, 237–39, 256. See also Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
National Youth Administration, 185, 186, 199, 229, 272, 311, 317, 329
National Observatory. See United States Naval Observatory
Nautical Almanac, American, 56–60, 77, 79, 82, 84, 87, 96, 99, 137, 138, 178, 181, 198, 229, 232, 267, 288; and calculating machines, 69–70, 243, 270, 287, 318; and prime meridian, 65–67; and relations with Congress, 67, 68; staffing computing office of, 61–64, 113–16, 120, 242; and war, 71, 72, 240, 246, 249. See also Babbage, Charles; Comrie, L. J.; Davis, Charles Henry; Eckert, Wallace J.; Maskelyne, Nevil; Pierce, Benjamin; Royal Astronomical Society
Nautical Almanac, British, 27–30, 35, 40, 41, 46, 53, 55–57, 65, 66, 143, 179, 186, 192; and calculating machines, 172–74, 193; staffing computing office of, 33, 36, 47–49, 53, 54, 64, 172, 196, 261. See also Babbage, Charles; Comrie, L. J.; Davis, Charles Henry; Eckert, Wallace J.; Maskelyne, Nevil; Pierce, Benjamin; Royal Astronomical Society
Naval Observatory. See United States Naval Observatory
navigation, 6, 27–33, 40, 47, 55–58, 66, 67, 73, 100, 129, 154, 196, 249–53, 261, 277, 289. See also Longitude, Methods of Determining
Neptune, 23, 59–62, 119, 192
New Deal, 185, 190, 198, 233, 237, 255, 330
New York Hydrographic Office, 256, 269, 277, 285
Newcomb, Simon, 64, 72, 113–17, 198, 235, 240, 241, 274, 330; and labor troubles, 114; and Institute for Exact Sciences, 115, 116
Newton, Isaac, 5, 6, 13–16, 23, 26, 27, 38, 48, 50, 59, 81, 92, 103, 119, 121, 128, 148, 185, 208, 318, 330
Newton, Isaac (American agriculturalist), 75
New York Hydrographic Project. See Mathematical Tables Project, Long Range Navigation
Neyman, Jerzy, 269–71, 278, 285, 295, 330
numerical integration. See mathematical methods
Numerov, Boris, 194, 248
Observatory Pinafore, 84–88, 157
O’Kane, Blanch (author’s grandmother), 1–4, 8
Oughtred, William, 91, 92
Pascal, Blaise, 41, 92, 93
Pauling, Linus, 270
Pearl, Raymond, 147, 148, 150, 161
Pearson, Karl, 102, 107–12, 115–18, 125–28, 130–33, 147, 156, 158, 165, 168, 169, 172–74, 178, 179, 196, 219, 237, 262, 330; and First World War, 126, 127, 130, 132, 133, 153, 154; and George Bernard Shaw, 102, 107; and women, 107, 108, 110, 111, 131. See also Tracts for Computers
Peirce, Benjamin, 57–62, 66–69, 71, 74, 78–81, 84, 98, 156, 159, 222, 330; and binary arithmetic, 79, 80
Peirce, Charles Saunders, 74
Pennsylvania, University of, 272, 276, 287, 288, 313; computing office of, 257–61; Moore School of Electrical Engineering Summer Lectures, 288, 311
Persily, Matilda, 220
Pickering, Edward C., 82, 83, 87, 99, 230, 330
planets. See individual planets
political turmoil, scientists and, 304–10
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Pontécoulant, Philippe Gustave Le Doulcet, comte de, 48, 49, 119–21, 330
prime meridian, 55, 65, 66; American, 50, 65–67, 240; Greenwich, 65–67; New Orleans (proposed), 65, 66; Paris, 65
Princeton University, 136, 208, 253, 256, 301, 313; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 266, 269; enthusiasm at for First World War, 133, 208
programming, computer. See computers, electronic stored programs
progressive digiting, 162, 192, 193
punched card machines, 145, 146, 163, 188, 191–93, 226, 243, 244, 268, 270, 287, 288, 303, 318; adding tabulators, 93–96, 99, 159, 162–66, 168, 226, 283; and Analytical Engine, 44–45; and L. J. Comrie, 172; compared to human computers, 275; limits of for scientific computation, 171, 229, 242; multiplying tabulators, 162, 193, 225, 311; plug boards, 274, 304
Radcliffe College. See Harvard University
Rees, Mina, 273, 300
Research Board for National Security, 279, 280, 300
Rhodes, Ida, 212, 220, 251, 252, 255, 273, 296, 300, 315
Richardson, Lewis Fry, 142–44, 201, 218, 229, 330
Richtmyer, Floyd, 178–81
Ritt, Joseph, 136, 137
Rockefeller Foundation, 227, 238, 330, 253, 257, 264
Rocket trajectories. See ballistics, trajectories
Royal Astronomical Society, 39, 40, 43, 47–49, 52–54, 173, 329
Royal Greenwich Observatory, 15, 27, 28, 35, 38, 46, 47, 49–57, 62, 65, 66, 113, 120, 121, 172, 321, 328
Royal Nautical Almanac. See Nautical Almanac, British
Royal Society, 13, 42, 43, 75, 106, 107, 173, 331
Runkle, John, 60, 62
Sadler, Donald, 261–63
Safford, Henry, 60
Saturn, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23, 48, 59, 121, 192
Saunders, Rhoda, 74, 82, 85–87, 91, 331
Scheutz, George and Edvard, 69, 70, 331; difference engine of (see difference engine)
Schilt, Jan, 267, 274
Schlachter, Regina, 251, 252
Schott, Charles, 74
Scientific Computing Service. See Comrie, L. J.
Second World War, 5, 7, 239, 240, 256–75, 279, 301, 311, 313, 319; calculations for D-Day, 269–71; end of conflict, 276–85, 298; German science from, 280–84
When Computers Were Human Page 54
