When Computers Were Human

by David Alan Grier

U.S. Nautical Almanac, “Annual Report of the U.S. Nautical Almanac,” Washington, D.C., U.S. Navy.

  U.S. Naval Observatory, Annual Report of the Naval Observatory, Washington, D.C., Department of the Navy.

  U.S. Navy, Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office.

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  Wallace, Henry A., Agricultural Prices, Des Moines, Iowa, Wallace Publishing Company, 1920.

  Wallace, Henry A., “What Is an Iowa Farm Worth?” Wallace’s Practical Farmer, vol. 49, no. 1, January 4, 1924, pp. 1ff.

  Wallace, Henry A., “Who Plays the Part of Joseph?” Wallace’s Farmer, September 27, 1912.

  Wallace, Henry A., and George W. Snedecor, Correlation and Machine Calculation, Iowa State College of Agricultural and Mechanic Arts, vol. 23, no. 35, Aimes, Iowa State College, 1925.

  Wang, Jessica, “Science, Security and the Cold War: The Case of E. U. Condon,” Isis, vol. 83, 1992, pp. 238–69.

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  Weaver, Warren, Scene of Change, New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970.

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  “Weeks Is Disputed by Research Group,” New York Times, April 7, 1953.

  “Weeks Sees Ousting of ‘Holdovers’ Here,” Washington Evening Star, March 29, 1953, p. A31.

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  Wiener, Norbert, Ex-Prodigy, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1953.

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  Williams, Michael, A History of Computing Technology, Los Alamitos, Calif., Computer Society Press, 1997.

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  Works Progress Administration, Index of Research Projects, vol. 3, Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 1939.

  World’s Congress Auxiliary, The World’s Congress Auxiliary of the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 (circular), WCE.

  “WPA Exhibit Opens without Fanfare,” New York Times, May 23, 1939, p. 18.

  “WPA Finds Friends at Its Fair Exhibit,” New York Times, July 6, 1939, p. 18.

  “WPA Will Add 350,000 to Rolls,” Washington Evening Star, December 10, 1937, p. B5.

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  Yeomans, Donald, “Comet Halley—The Orbital Motion,” Astronomical Journal, vol. 82, no. 6, 1977, pp. 435–40.

  Yeomans, Donald, Comets: A Chronological History of Observation, Science, Myth, and Folklore, New York, John Wiley, 1991.

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  Index

  Aberdeen Proving Ground, 159, 198, 232, 235, 240, 242, 256, 263, 277, 280, 296, 322, 313, 325; in First World War, 134, 136–38, 140–42, 144, 151–54, 264; 1936 reorganization of, 195, 234, 240, 242; and University of Pennsylvania, 257–59; and veterans of First World War, 178, 179, 195, 205, 223, 236, 240, 259

  Abramowitz, Milton, 206, 250, 285, 291, 313, 314, 325; and LORAN, 250–52, 277, 285

  Académie des Sciences (France), 19, 20, 22–24, 34, 35, 75, 234

  accuracy of computations, 167, 168, 219, 259, 263, 267, 304, 319; astronomical accuracy, 92, 162; checking for errors, 21, 166, 184, 186, 214, 215; differencing (see mathematical methods); double computation, 30, 40. See also comets, precision of prediction for

  actuaries, 2, 4, 60, 61, 93, 102, 124, 189, 190, 236, 237. See also insurance

  Adams, Henry, 96, 97, 100

  Addams, Jane, 100

  adding machines. See calculating machines

  Admiralty Computing Service, 261–64, 281–83, 295, 301, 325

  Aerospace Research Laboratories, 312, 315

  agricultural statistics. See statistics, agricultural

  Aiken, Howard, 229–33, 254, 287, 288, 300, 325; and Mark I computing machine, 230, 231, 272, 277, 287; and Second World War, 272, 275, 277

  aircraft. See aviation

  Airy, George, 49–54, 59, 62, 64, 65, 113, 120, 132, 321, 325

  American Association for the Advancement of Science, 56, 57, 316

  American Mathematical Society, 202, 205, 209, 236, 291

  American Nautical Almanac and Ephemeris. See Nautical Almanac, American

  American Telephone and Telegraph, 170, 179. See also Bell Telephone Laboratories

  Ängström, Jonas, 119–21

  Applied Mathematics Panel, 253–55, 258, 264–69, 271–74, 276, 278–86, 288, 289, 313, 317, 325; and computing machines, 268, 271, 277; demobilization of, 276–78, 285, 288, 289; and lack of postwar vision, 279, 280; and Rockefeller Foundation, 264

  Archibald, Raymond Claire, 211, 235–39, 242, 246, 285–88, 293, 294, 311, 325; chair of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 236, 237, 256, 257, 261; and Mathematical Tables Project, 291, 294; and National Research Council, 238, 239, 256; and Rockefeller Foundation, 238, 257

  army. See United States Army

  Astin, Allen, 309, 310

  Astronomer Royal (England), 15, 21, 27, 47, 50, 53, 92, 124. See also Royal G
reenwich Observatory

  astronomy, 5–7, 11–25, 27, 29, 30, 37–40, 43, 48–50, 55, 71, 79, 83, 87, 92, 98–100, 103, 116, 124, 128, 138, 143, 181, 191–94, 237, 239, 274; data reduction in, 50, 64, 82, 108, 120, 136, 172, 193, 230; and orbital calculations, 11–16, 20–25, 46, 48, 59–62, 70, 88, 119–21, 123–25, 130, 148, 178, 230, 301, 302, 319; and Claudius Ptolemy and the Almagest, 5. See also calculus, and three-body problem; comets; Halley’s comet

  Atanasoff, John Vincent, 225–33, 281, 311, 325; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 268; and computing machines, 226–29, 232, 268

  atomic bomb. See Manhattan Project

  aviation, 127, 241. See also Langley Field

  Babbage, Charles, 5, 6, 38–45, 47, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 69, 104, 172, 173, 230, 321, 325; and analytical engine, 44, 230; and difference engine, 41–44, 53, 54, 56, 69, 92, 173, 215, 288

  Baldwin, Frank, 93, 106

  ballistics, 3, 4, 6, 7, 72, 74, 97, 98, 128–31, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 143, 151, 152, 181, 189, 195, 239, 247, 253, 261, 283, 289, 296; and antiaircraft artillery, 129, 130, 132, 137, 141, 278; calculations in, 130–32, 136, 156, 235, 259, 271, 281; and differential analyzer, 178, 234, 258–61, 268, 283; Moulton theory in, 141, 142, 179; Siacci theory, 129, 130, 141; trajectories, 264, 280, 281, 283, 289, 301, 302

  Barlow, Peter, 5, 211

  Bell Telephone Laboratories, 178–80, 189, 216, 221, 223, 226–28, 232, 233, 237, 242, 249, 253, 261, 268, 272, 280, 287, 310, 311, 326; mathematics and computing division of, 169–71, 179, 180, 221, 227. See also American Telephone and Telegraph

  Bennett, A. A., 179, 211, 326; chair of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 195, 196, 234, 235

  Berry, Clifford, 229, 311

  Bessel function, 125, 184

  Bethe, Hans, 218, 219

  binary arithmetic. See mathematical methods

  Biometrics Laboratory. See Galton Laboratory

  Blanch, Gertrude, 212–17, 219, 234, 239, 247–50, 258, 269–73, 289, 299–304, 307, 308–17, 318, 322, 326; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 254, 272; background and education of, 206–9; and Hans Bethe, 219; and ElectroData Corporation, 311, 312; and Institute for Numerical Analysis, 299–304, 310; and President Lyndon Johnson, 316, 317; loyalty and security problems of, 248, 249, 307, 307–10, 312

  Bliss, Gilbert, 178, 195, 259, 260, 278

  bombing calculations, 129, 141, 247, 253, 266, 269, 270, 285

  Bowditch, Ingersoll, 66

  Brainerd, John, 257–60

  Brandt, Alva, 221, 226

  Briggs, Henry, 6

  Briggs, Lyman, 202, 203, 205, 210, 211, 217, 244, 257, 258, 284, 289

  British Admiralty, 27–29, 33, 47–50, 172, 196, 281, 282

  British Association for the Advancement of Science Mathematical Tables Committee. See Mathematical Tables Committee (BAAS)

  Brown, Ernest, 192

  Brunsviga. See calculating machines, Brunsviga

  Bureau du Cadastre, 33–38, 40, 51, 326

  Burroughs, William Seward, 93, 96, 326

  Bush, Vannevar, 178–90, 201, 326

  Cahn, Albert, 300, 301, 303, 306, 307

  calculating machines, 171, 177, 220, 221, 272; Atanasoff’s machine (ABC), 227–29, 232, 268, 281, 311; Bell Labs, complex calculator of, 223, 224, 227, 232; Brunsviga, 106, 117, 121, 154, 155, 169, 174, 262, 326; Burroughs Arithmometer, 93, 96; Felt Comptometer, 93, 96; isograph computing machine, 222, 226; Mark I (Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator), 231, 232, 277, 287; mass production of, 7, 41, 92, 93, 96, 117, 121, 142, 157, 165, 171, 188, 198, 207, 217, 220, 221, 225, 229, 230, 233, 242, 244, 255, 283, 285, 287, 301, 326; Millionaire and Mercedes calculators 171; Model K, 223, 227; Monroe calculator, 183, 230; National Accounting Machine, 172–74, 263; Pascal adding mechanism, 41, 93; price of compared to computer salary, 95, 220, 223, 231, 268; Sustrand adding machines, 220, 243; Thomas Arithmometer, 92, 93. See also difference engine; differential analyzer; punched card machines; computers, electronic stored programs; International Business Machines

  calculus, 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 12–16, 26, 27, 59, 81, 100, 106, 121, 182, 258, 321, 322; and three-body problem, 14–16, 20, 28, 79, 128, 192

  California, University of, at Los Angeles. See UCLA

  Cambridge University, 11, 38, 50, 51, 261

  Carnegie Institute of Washington, 116, 117, 180. See also Newcomb, Simon, Institute for the Exact Sciences

  Carnegie, Andrew, 4, 116, 117

  Carnot, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite, 37

  Cave-Brown-Cave, Beatrice, 111, 112, 130, 131

  Cave-Brown-Cave, Frances, 111, 112, 130, 168, 263, 326

  Census. See United States Census

  Chicago World’s Fair. See World’s Columbian Exposition

  Civil War (American), 70–79, 81, 129

  Clairaut, Alexis Claude, 16, 17, 20–25, 27, 37, 53, 107, 120, 121, 128, 321, 326

  Clem, Mary, 167–69

  Coast Survey Office. See United States Coast and Geodetic Survey

  Cold War, 5, 7, 194, 248, 249, 298, 304–6

  Colmar, Charles Xavier Thomas de, 92, 93, 327

  Columbia University, 94, 133, 136, 140, 166, 170, 195, 231, 303; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 266, 267, 273, 274, 285; Astronomical Computing Bureau (see Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau); and Mathematical Tables Project, 202–5, 216; and Soviet visitors, 194, 248, 249; Statistical Computing Office, 190–94

  comets, 72, 120, 130, 301, 302; of Maria Mitchell, 61, 62; precision of prediction for, 15, 23, 24, 49, 120–23, 318–21. See also Halley’s comet

  Committee for Conducting Statistical Inquiries into the Measurable Characteristics of Plants and Animals, 106–8

  Communist Party. See Cold War; Soviet Union; Mathematical Tables Project, security within

  complex arithmetic. See mathematical methods; calculating machines

  Computation Laboratory. See Mathematical Tables Project

  Computers, electronic stored programs, 5, 7, 230, 272, 273, 285, 287–89, 299, 303, 304, 311–15, 318, 319, 321. See also calculating machines; ENIAC; UNIVAC

  computers, human, 4, 7, 48, 53, 70, 98, 120, 172, 276, 288, 293; and agriculture, 159, 166, 188; and ballistics, 74, 129, 130, 132, 136, 140, 141, 144, 151, 152, 153, 260, 261, 271, 283; and biology, 106, 108, 110, 130; boys as, 50–52, 59, 113, 132, 321; and calculating machines, 7, 69, 92, 93, 96, 120, 142, 157, 165, 166, 168, 171, 188, 213, 217, 220–23, 225, 226, 231, 234, 242, 255, 258, 259, 274, 285, 287, 291, 312; and clerical labor, 49, 52, 81, 94, 95, 96, 126, 147, 198, 256, 287, 292; compared to machines, 43, 54, 70, 114, 168, 231, 267, 268, 275, 288, 303; compared to operators, 164, 168, 231, 258, 259, 267; cost of calculation by, 67, 79, 83, 84, 95, 143, 160, 223, 227, 231, 259, 267, 268; division of labor among (see division of labor); education and training of, 7, 51, 59, 68, 76, 78, 106, 113, 132, 133, 141, 156, 196, 210, 212, 252, 258, 259, 261, 273, 282; and electronic programmable computers, 231, 263, 264, 273, 285, 288, 295, 296, 302–4, 312, 313, 316, 318, 319, 312; instructions and plans for, 30, 36, 37, 52, 63, 78, 120, 124, 201, 213; labor discontent among, 52, 83, 86, 113, 114, 131, 151, 292–94; management of, 68, 70, 78, 113, 114, 131, 133, 136, 137, 144, 167, 196, 197, 203, 214, 215, 216, 263, 269, 277, 278, 301, 321; and mathematical tables, 125, 184, 185, 232, 281, 285, 313, 314; and mathematics, 78, 81, 121, 140–42, 159; and meteorology, 76, 77, 143; professional institutions for, 7, 173, 179, 181, 197, 236, 239; professionalization of, 7, 177, 181, 239, 243, 255, 285, 286; professional literature for, 7, 157, 177, 179–81, 185, 186, 195, 199, 236–39, 257, 261, 272, 286, 312–14; reference books for, 63, 84, 156, 157, 177; social status of, 19, 24, 36, 52, 67, 71, 110, 113, 133, 141, 167, 196, 200, 212, 221, 253, 276, 280, 283, 288; and statistics, 106, 108, 116, 117, 148, 188; and surveying, 65, 72, 78, 93, 159; wages of, 52, 64, 67, 79, 82–84, 95, 111, 113, 160, 220, 223, 247, 259, 267, 268; and war, 71–73, 74, 126–43, 145, 151, 253, 269, 313; and women, 24, 61, 81–88, 102, 103, 106, 110–12, 126, 138–40, 147, 152, 167, 168, 170, 189, 190, 218, 230, 238, 252, 253, 256, 2
58–61, 276, 282, 303; working conditions of, 51, 53, 64, 76, 77, 84, 86, 87, 95, 96, 111–13, 117, 142, 144, 170, 171, 210, 215, 217, 218, 220, 221, 250, 260, 263, 268, 269, 291, 300, 301. See also Aberdeen Proving Ground; Babbage, Charles; Bureau Cadastre; Connaissance des Temps; de Prony, Gaspard Marie Riche; Harvard University, Observatory; Mathematical Tables Project; Nautical Almanac, American; Nautical Almanac, British; Royal Greenwich Observatory

  computing forms, 37, 52, 54, 63, 76, 77, 94, 143, 147, 148, 213–15, 217, 219, 220, 246

  Computing, Tabulating and Recording Company (CTR). See International Business Machines

  Comrie, Leslie J., 154–57, 172, 179, 186, 192, 215, 219, 221, 240, 242, 263, 276, 287, 288, 311, 321, 326; and British Nautical Almanac, 172–74, 196; and calculating machines, 171, 172, 174, 193, 261, 263; and Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 196, 237, 257; and Mathematical Tables Committee, 173, 174; and Mathematical Tables Project, 211, 215, 251, 252; and Scientific Computing Service, 196, 197, 239, 261

  Condon, Edward, 289–91, 305, 306, 309

  Connaissance des Temps, 24, 29–31, 36, 65, 68, 75

  Cornell University, 140, 166, 178, 208, 209, 218

  corn-hog ratio, 150, 151

  cottage industries. See division of labor

  Courant, Richard, 253, 267, 279, 281, 283, 284

  Cowles, Alfred, 186–90, 225, 327

  Cowles Commission for Economic Research, 188, 195, 327

  Crommelin, Andrew, 119–21, 123, 130, 179, 318, 319, 321, 327

  Crowell, Philip, 121, 327

  Curtiss, John, 219, 290–92, 295, 296, 299, 300, 302, 303, 309, 313; and Mathematical Tables Project, 219, 290–94, 298, 299

  d’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 23, 24, 325

  Dantzig, George, 295, 296

  Darwin, Charles, 102–5, 107

  Davis, Charles Henry, 57–68, 74, 75, 78, 81, 113, 181, 232, 327; and Shakespeare, 58, 64, 71; and United States Congress, 67, 68, 70

  Davis, H. T., 180–88, 202, 203, 211, 219, 225, 239, 311, 327; and Indiana University computing lab, 183–86; and Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 195, 196, 201, 237; and Tables of Higher Mathematical Functions, 185, 186, 188

  de Prony, Gaspard Marie Riche, 34–38, 40, 43, 45, 46, 51, 92, 215, 275, 321, 327